Animal Diversity Web

Ge­o­graphic Range

Gold­fish (Caras­sius au­ra­tus) orig­i­nated in east­ern Asia in­clud­ing China, Hong Kong, Korea, and Tai­wan. From China, the range of this species ex­panded north to most of the world. Gold­fish have been in­tro­duced in the United States in Kansas, the north­ern part of Ok­la­homa, Wash­ing­ton, New Mex­ico, and four of the five Great Lakes: Lake Erie, Lake Michi­gan, Lake Huron, and Lake On­tario. They are also ex­tant in west­ern Canada in the Rocky Moun­tains, south­ern France, north­ern Italy, South Africa, Mada­gas­car, and south­ern India. (Huck­storf and Frey­hof, 2013; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007)

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic
  • introduced
• palearctic
  • native
• oriental
  • native
• ethiopian
  • introduced
• neotropical
  • introduced
• australian
  • introduced
• oceanic islands
  • introduced

• Other Geographic Terms
• cosmopolitan

Habi­tat

Gold­fish mainly oc­cupy fresh in­land wa­ters and wet­lands in tem­per­ate re­gions. They tend to live in bod­ies of water with slow or no move­ment. This in­cludes rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, marshes, bogs, and swamps. They can live in salin­i­ties up to 17 parts per tril­lion (ppt) but can­not thrive prop­erly in wa­ters above 15 ppt salin­ity. Luz et al. (2008) con­ducted a study on gold­fish be­hav­ior in dif­fer­ent salin­i­ties, and found that gold­fish ex­hibit a higher tol­er­ance to low salin­i­ties than high salin­i­ties.

Gold­fish typ­i­cally live at depths of 10 me­ters (range 1-20 me­ters). Gold­fish are able to live in tem­per­a­tures 0-10°C but can tol­er­ate tem­per­a­tures as high as 30-40°C. They are more com­mon in water with pH lev­els be­tween 5.5-7.0 but may tol­er­ate wa­ters with pH lev­els up to 10.5. (Brown, et al., 2019; Huck­storf and Frey­hof, 2013; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007; Luz, et al., 2008)

• Habitat Regions
• temperate
• freshwater

• Aquatic Biomes
• lakes and ponds
• rivers and streams

• Wetlands
• marsh
• swamp

• Range depth

  1 to 20 m

  3.28 to 65.62 ft

• Average depth

  10 m

  32.81 ft

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

Gold­fish hatch with dark, pig­mented scales, but they de­pig­ment 2-3 months after hatch­ing. Adult gold­fish are a yel­low-or­ange color and pos­sess trans­par­ent fins. In cap­tiv­ity, gold­fish can come in col­ors like red, black, and sil­ver due to a va­ri­ety of fac­tors in­clud­ing diet, light, and ill­ness. If re­leased back into the wild, the gold­fish will re­vert to the yel­low-or­ange color after a cou­ple of gen­er­a­tions.

Gold­fish can grow to 15-45 cen­time­ters total length. At hatch­ing, they are 4.5-5.0 mil­lime­ters in length. As adults, they can weigh from 0.1-3.0 kilo­grams. Fe­male gold­fish tend to have rounder bod­ies while males tend to have slim­mer, oval-shaped bod­ies. Wild gold­fish often grow big­ger than do­mes­ti­cated gold­fish be­cause of their richer en­vi­ron­ment with more re­sources and space to swim.

Gold­fish grow to have 5 types fins in­clud­ing two pec­toral fins, two pelvic fins, one anal fin, one dor­sal fin, and one cau­dal fin which all help gold­fish swim ef­fi­ciently through their en­vi­ron­ment. Gold­fish have 25-31 cy­cloid scales along the lat­eral line. There are three cy­cloid scale types, based on color, re­flec­tiv­ity, and trans­parency: matte, metal­lic, and nacre­ous. Matte scales are trans­par­ent and have lit­tle to no color. Metal­lic scales are shiny and turn black when a gold­fish is in­jured. Nacre­ous scales are semi-trans­par­ent and are most com­monly black, blue, or white.

Gold­fish are ec­tother­mic, mean­ing they rely on heat from their en­vi­ron­ment to reg­u­late their body tem­per­a­ture. (Ka­jishima, 1975; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007; Omori and Kon, 2018)

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes shaped differently

• Range mass

  0.1 to 3.0 kg

  0.22 to 6.61 lb

• Average mass

  2 kg

  4.41 lb

• Range length

  15 to 45 cm

  5.91 to 17.72 in

• Average length

  20 cm

  7.87 in

De­vel­op­ment

When gold­fish eggs are spawned into the water, the chorion is formed around the egg and ad­heres the eggs to an aquatic plant or some­where sim­i­lar where they will be stored until hatch­ing. Fer­til­ized gold­fish eggs progress through typ­i­cal deuteros­tome stages as the em­bryos di­vide and de­velop. Gold­fish-spe­cific fea­tures are vis­i­ble in the gas­trula pe­riod when tail buds be­come pre­sent. From that pe­riod on­ward, the tail bud be­comes longer, and the pec­toral fins de­velop. The eggs are 1.2-1.5 mil­lime­ters long. After hatch­ing, they are around 4.5mm in length. Gold­fish lar­vae can grow to 6 cen­time­ters after one year and con­tinue to grow until they be­come adults, which can take around 3 years. The rate of growth then slows down once in adult stage, to about 2.5 cm per year. In cap­tiv­ity, gold­fish grow to about 2.5-15cm in length. Wild gold­fish have a higher growth rate with some reach­ing 18cm in length at 1 year old. They can reach a max­i­mum size of 45cm and 2kg.

Gold­fish have in­de­ter­mi­nate growth in the wild, mean­ing they do not stop grow­ing. (Beatty, et al., 2017; Stauf­fer, et al., 1995; Tsai, et al., 2013)

• Development - Life Cycle
• indeterminate growth

Re­pro­duc­tion

Gold­fish are polyg­y­nan­drous, with males and fe­males each hav­ing mul­ti­ple mates in a sea­son. When fe­males are with eggs, they re­lease a pheromone into the water to sig­nal males to pro­duce milt, or sperm. When fe­males spawn eggs, males ap­proach the fe­male. Both sexes will pur­sue one an­other by chas­ing and bump­ing each other. Males then re­lease milt into the water near the eggs to fer­til­ize them. (Agosta, 1994; "Species Pro­file: Koi and Gold­fish", 2004)

• Mating System
• polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Gold­fish breed sea­son­ally from Feb­ru­ary to June, but tem­per­a­ture dri­ves the range. The min­i­mum tem­per­a­ture gold­fish start to breed is 10 °C. They spawn once each month dur­ing this pe­riod. Both male and fe­male gold­fish be­come sex­u­ally ma­ture at 3-4 years of age. Gold­fish are iteroparous and oviparous.

Fe­male gold­fish spawn eggs into the water, then the eggs get fer­til­ized ex­ter­nally with milt from mul­ti­ple male gold­fish. Fer­til­iza­tion is ex­ter­nal. Fe­male gold­fish nor­mally spawn 2000-4000 eggs at a time, al­though the high­est num­ber of eggs spawned was 380,000. The weight as lar­vae ranges be­tween 0.15-0.17 grams. Gold­fish eggs hatch in 2-9 days. Once hatched, lar­vae are in­de­pen­dent. (Agosta, 1994; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007; Sharma, et al., 2011; "Species Pro­file: Koi and Gold­fish", 2004)

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous
• seasonal breeding
• sexual
• fertilization
  • external
• oviparous

• Breeding interval

  Goldfish breed once a month mainly in the months of February-June.

• Breeding season

  Fertilization and spawning occurs in the Spring.

• Range number of offspring

  2000 to 380000

• Range time to hatching

  2 to 9 days

• Average time to independence

  0 minutes

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  3 to 4 years

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

  3 to 4 years

Fe­male gold­fish carry eggs that are spawned into the water. When re­leased into the water, the eggs are fer­til­ized by male milt. Be­yond the act of mat­ing, males and fe­males pro­vide no parental care. Adult gold­fish also con­sume their own off­spring. (Loren­zoni, et al., 2007)

• Parental Investment
• no parental involvement

Lifes­pan/Longevity

Gold­fish usu­ally live from 20 to 30 years in the wild and 5 to 10 years in cap­tiv­ity. The re­duced cap­tive lifes­pan is due to is­sues of tank size and food re­sources. The longest a gold­fish lived in cap­tiv­ity was 43 years. The max­i­mum longevity in the wild is 41 years. (Bo­bick and Pef­fer, 1993; Brown, et al., 2019; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007)

• Range lifespan
  Status: wild

  41 (high) years

• Range lifespan
  Status: captivity

  43 (high) years

• Typical lifespan
  Status: wild

  20 to 30 years

• Typical lifespan
  Status: captivity

  5 to 10 years

Be­hav­ior

Gold­fish are a so­cial species. They form schools and com­mu­ni­cate with con­specifics within the school. The school­ing also al­lows them to de­fend against preda­tors. Gold­fish are not ag­gres­sive to­wards con­specifics and do not form so­cial hi­er­ar­chies. Gold­fish are mo­bile and nata­to­r­ial, typ­i­cally ac­tive dur­ing dusk and dawn.

Gold­fish hi­ber­nate in the win­ter months when water tem­per­a­tures are below 10 de­grees Cel­sius and pos­sess suf­fi­cient oxy­gen. They can tol­er­ate lower lev­els of oxy­gen for shorter pe­ri­ods (sev­eral months) at 2 de­grees Cel­sius. Gold­fish tol­er­ate a wide range of water con­di­tions and en­vi­ron­men­tal stress. They can live in water salin­i­ties as high as 17 ppt. They have a tol­er­ance to am­mo­nia in water, which is toxic to other species. Wilkie et al. (2011) did acute tox­i­c­ity tests on gold­fish and de­ter­mined that gold­fish can tol­er­ate 4132 mi­cro­moles (umol) of am­mo­nia. They can with­stand high tur­bid­ity lev­els and can tol­er­ate high lev­els of water pol­lu­tion.

Gold­fish use pheromones to at­tract mates and sub­se­quently chase and bump into one an­other be­fore mat­ing. They use their lat­eral line to help them de­tect mo­tion in the water and com­mu­ni­cate with sur­round­ing gold­fish by sens­ing nat­ural rip­ples, cur­rents, and vi­bra­tions made while swim­ming. (Brown, et al., 2019; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007; Stacey, 2003; Wilkie, et al., 2011)

• Key Behaviors
• natatorial
• crepuscular
• motile
• hibernation
• social

Home Range

Beatty et al. (2017) stud­ied sea­sonal move­ment re­lated to spawn­ing of gold­fish, and they moved 0.30 km per day, on av­er­age, in the east­ern Aus­tralian Mur­ray River. One fish moved 231.3 km over a one-year pe­riod and an­other fish moved 5.4 km in one day. By com­par­i­son, Kim et al. (2014) recorded av­er­age move­ment of 1.4 km per day in the Janghe­ung Dam. Gold­fish in rivers will mi­grate to off-chan­nel stag­nant (lentic) wa­ters to spawn dur­ing breed­ing sea­son. They do not de­fend a ter­ri­tory. (Bajer, et al., 2010; Beatty, et al., 2017; Kim, et al., 2014; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007; Stauf­fer, et al., 1995)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

A main part of gold­fish per­cep­tion and com­mu­ni­ca­tion is their lat­eral line which is a line of sen­sory or­gans on the sides of their body. It helps them de­tect mo­tion in the water around them and com­mu­ni­cate with sur­round­ing gold­fish by sens­ing the nat­ural rip­ples, cur­rents, and vi­bra­tions they make while swim­ming. Gold­fish have a hear­ing fre­quency limit of 2 to 3 kHz. Their inner ear is able to de­tect pres­sure by cou­pling to their gas blad­der.

Gold­fish are tetra­chro­mats, mean­ing they can see four col­ors. These in­clude red, green, blue, and ul­tra­vi­o­let (UV) wave­lengths. UV wave­lengths pen­e­trate water bet­ter than light wave­lengths, help­ing gold­fish bet­ter sense preda­tors and prey by water re­flec­tion. They can also use their vi­sion to dis­cover (and re­mem­ber) land­marks in water as a method of ori­ent­ing them­selves.

Gold­fish com­mu­ni­cate the most through groups called schools or shoals. Being in these groups are ben­e­fi­cial in many ways. For ex­am­ple, gold­fish can se­crete a sub­stance when their skin is dam­aged which alerts their school to help with mon­i­tor­ing sur­round­ings. Gold­fish use chem­i­cals to per­ceive food and avoid preda­tors through­out their en­vi­ron­ment. Mon­ello and Wright (2001) state that gold­fish are ca­pa­ble of learn­ing feed­ing be­hav­iors through con­specifics - that is, if they see a gold­fish con­sum­ing an un­usual item, oth­ers may par­tic­i­pate in feed­ing too.

Fe­male gold­fish se­crete pheromones to com­mu­ni­cate to male gold­fish to fer­til­ize their eggs. This chem­i­cal stim­u­lates the males' re­pro­duc­tive sys­tem to pro­duce more milt, or fish semen. Male gold­fish are more likely to dis­charge milt near fe­male gold­fish who are re­leas­ing pheromones than to fe­male gold­fish who are not. (Agosta, 1994; Brown, et al., 2019; Dai­ley and Braun, 2011; Fay, 1994; Mon­ello and Wright, 2001)

• Communication Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• pheromones
• vibrations

• Perception Channels
• visual
• ultraviolet
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

Food Habits

Gold­fish are op­por­tunis­tic feed­ers. They are gen­er­al­ist om­ni­vores that eat a va­ri­ety of in­sects, eggs, plants, and crus­taceans. They search widely for food through­out aquatic veg­e­ta­tion and sandy sub­strates. Richard­son et al. (1995) ex­am­ined gut con­tents of Ston­ey­croft Pond gold­fish in Que­bec and found that 45% of their diet con­sists of veg­e­ta­tion (e.g., aquatic pondweeds like Pota­moge­ton). In­sects like non-bit­ing midges (fam­ily Chi­rono­mi­dae) and mos­qui­tos (fam­ily Culi­ci­dae) made up 21% of their diet. Small crus­taceans like brine shrimp (Artemia), water fleas (Daph­nia magna), and zoo­plank­ton made up 4% of diet. They also con­sume ter­res­trial worms like earth­worms (sub­or­der Lum­bric­ina) and any de­tri­tus they can find in the water. They may eat the car­rion of these in­sects and crus­taceans. Pond ex­per­i­ments with caged gold­fish sug­gest that they will con­sume am­phib­ian eggs, too.

In cap­tiv­ity, gold­fish mainly con­sume com­mer­cial fish flakes and small veg­eta­bles like peas. Newly-hatched gold­fish, also known as fry, have the same diet as adults, but in smaller por­tions. There are no dif­fer­ences in the diets of male and fe­male gold­fish. (Brown, et al., 2019; Mo­ham­mad, et al., 2018; Mon­ello and Wright, 2001; Richard­son, et al., 1995)

• Primary Diet
• herbivore
  • folivore
• omnivore

• Animal Foods
• eggs
• carrion
• insects
• terrestrial worms
• aquatic crustaceans
• zooplankton

• Plant Foods
• leaves
• algae

• Other Foods
• detritus

Pre­da­tion

Gold­fish can be preda­tors to their own young by con­sum­ing their eggs. In the wild, an­i­mals such as dogs (Canis lupus fa­mil­iaris), cats (Felis catus), coy­otes (Canis la­trans), plain-bel­lied water snakes (Nero­dia ery­thro­gaster), moun­tain lions (Puma con­color), herons (fam­ily Ardei­dae), bears (fam­ily Ur­si­dae), east­ern in­digo snakes (Dry­mar­chon couperi), north­ern river ot­ters (Lon­tra canaden­sis), and Amer­i­can bull­frogs (Litho­bates cates­beianus) can be preda­tors. To de­fend against pre­da­tion, gold­fish form large groups called schools to evade preda­tors and warn each other with chem­i­cal sig­nals that preda­tors are nearby. (Brown, et al., 2019; Tsai, et al., 2013)

• Known Predators

  • Dog (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • Cat (Felis catus)
  • Coyote (Canis latrans)
  • Mountain lion (Puma concolor)
  • Heron (family Ardeidae)
  • Eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi)
  • Northern river otter (Lontra canadensis)
  • American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus)
  • Bear (family Ursidae)
  • Goldfish (Carassius auratus)
  • Plain-bellied water snake (Nerodia erythrogaster)

Ecosys­tem Roles

Gold­fish eat a va­ri­ety of in­sects, plants, and crus­taceans and are con­sumed by var­i­ous mam­mals. Gold­fish play a role in their ecosys­tems by ef­forts of sed­i­ment bio­tur­ba­tion. They do this nat­u­rally by for­ag­ing, re­pro­duc­tion, and avoid­ing preda­tors in the water. This plays a sig­nif­i­cant role in how their ecosys­tem func­tions. It can in­crease food sup­ply for other or­gan­isms in their en­vi­ron­ment as well as in­crease and spread nu­tri­ents through­out the water.

Par­a­sites that use gold­fish as a host in­clude en­dopar­a­sites like trema­todes (Metag­o­nimus), ne­ma­todes (Con­tra­cae­cum), api­com­plex­ans (Plas­mod­ium), flat­worms (class Mono­ge­nea), par­a­sitic cnidar­i­ans (Sphaerospora, Mi­traspora), those in class Kine­to­plas­tea (Ichthy­obodo neca­tor), and mono­ge­neans (Dacty­l­o­gyrus). Ec­topar­a­sites in­clude fish lice (Ar­gu­lus fo­liceaus), an­chor worms (Ler­naea cypri­nacea), and leeches (Tra­chel­lob­della torquata). (Ahmed, 1973; Es­zter­bauer and Székely, 2004; Gan­dar, et al., 2015; Hakoyama, 2001; Tekın-Özan and Kir, 2005; Zhou, et al., 2020)

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

Gold­fish breed­ing and sales are sources of in­come for hu­mans. They are sold as pets and as bait for larger preda­tory fish. Prices for cap­tive gold­fish range from 15 cents for feeder gold­fish up to $120 for rarer gold­fish. Gold­fish are also used for re­search for many tox­i­c­ity tests in­clud­ing am­mo­nia tol­er­ance. (Wilkie, et al., 2011)

• Positive Impacts
• pet trade
• research and education

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

There are no known ad­verse ef­fects of gold­fish on hu­mans.

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

Gold­fish are a species of "Least Con­cern" on the IUCN Red List. They have no spe­cial sta­tus on the US Fed­eral List, CITES, and State of Michi­gan List.

Threats to gold­fish are lim­ited be­cause they are an in­va­sive species that can with­stand harm­ful water con­di­tions. Due to this, gold­fish are not known to be harmed by cli­mate change or mod­er­ate lev­els of water pol­lu­tion. One po­ten­tial threat is hy­bridiz­ing.

There are no con­ser­va­tion ef­forts in place but there may be ef­forts in place to re­move gold­fish from non-na­tive areas. (Beatty, et al., 2017; Huck­storf and Frey­hof, 2013; Loren­zoni, et al., 2007)

• IUCN Red List

  Least Concern

• US Federal List

  No special status

• CITES

  No special status

• State of Michigan List

  No special status

Con­trib­u­tors

Ashanti White (au­thor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Sierra Felty (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Bianca Plow­man (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Karen Pow­ers (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Vic­to­ria Rauler­son (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Christo­pher Woz­niak (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Genevieve Bar­nett (ed­i­tor), Col­orado State Uni­ver­sity.

Ref­er­ences

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