By Christopher Smart
Geographic Range
Mud salamanders (Pseudotriton montanus) are found in the southeastern United States. The species is found as far north as southern New York and as far south as northern Florida. Mud salamanders are found from the Atlantic coast in the east to Kentucky and Tennessee in the west. (Conant, 1958; Petranka, 1998)
Habitat
(2296 ft)
Peudotriton montanus prefers habitats near freshwater, including swamps, bogs, springs and streams that provide a muddy regions for burrowing. Present at elevations below 700 m, these salamanders sometimes inhabit unoccupied crayfish holes. (Bartlett, 2003b; Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2005; Petranka, 1998; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
These animals are found in the following types of habitat:
temperate 
; terrestrial .
Aquatic Biomes:
rivers and streams.
Physical Description
(2.95 to 6.3 in)
Mud salamanders have a stocky body with a short tail, and range in length from 7.5 to 16 cm. Females tend to be larger than males. Body color varies geographically. Most of the adults are red or reddish-brown with round black spots or blotches on the dorsal side. Color becomes darker with age. Mud salamanders generally have 16 to 17 costal grooves found along the dorsal side. (Bartlett, 2003b; Conant, 1958; Petranka, 1998; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
Some key physical features:
ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry .
Sexual dimorphism: female larger.
Development
Eggs are deposited on stalks near water, in cracks near streams, in burrows, or in leaf litter. The eggs are deposited singly or in clusters of up to six eggs, and hatch between January and March. Larvae are aquatic. They are dark in color with a hint of red. Metamorphosis takes place when young are 35 to 44 millimeters in length, anywhere between 15 and 30 months of age. Newly metamorphosed salamanders are usually yellow in color, but darken to the reddish tint typical of adults. (Bartlett, 2003b; Dodd, 2003; Petranka, 1998; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
Special features of growth:
metamorphosis .
Reproduction
Male mud salamanders may breed several times per year. Female mud salamanders breed at most once per year, but once every two years is common.
Breeding occurs in the warmer months of the year and egg deposition takes place in autumn or early winter.
Male mud salamanders actively search for mates. It is not known if there is competition for mates. Males may mate several times per year with different females. It is unknown whether males keep the same mates throughout their lives.
When a mate is found, the male performs a tail undulation display. The female then straddles his tail, allowing glands on the male's tail to lubricate her. The male is then able to deposit his sperm into the female. (Bishop, 1947; Petranka, 1998)
Mating systems:
polygynous .
Males reach sexual maturity at about 2.5 years, but females may not become reproductive until they are 4 or 5 years old. Male mud salamanders may reproduce several times per year and it appears that they breed annually. Sexually mature females breed every other year.
Breeding occurs during the warmer months of the year. Female mud salamanders lay eggs on stalks near water, in cracks near streams, or in burrows. Egg deposition is normally during autumn or early winter. A female may stay with her eggs to aid the incubation process. Incubation typically lasts three or more months, with embryos hatching in the winter. Clutches range in size between 65 and 200. ("Amphibian Declines: The conservation status of United States species", 2005; Bartlett, 2003b; Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2005; Petranka, 1998; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
Key reproductive features:
iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (internal ); oviparous .
Knowledge of the parental behavior of this species is incomplete. As in all vertebrates, females provision eggs with nutrients for development. Females deposit eggs in a places appropriate for incubation, such as cracks and burrows, and are thought to stay with a clutch during incubation. Female mud salamanders are generally not found during the three months of incubation. Males of this species are not known to provide any parental care. (Bartlett, 2003b)
Parental investment:
pre-fertilization (provisioning, protecting: female); pre-hatching/birth (provisioning: female).
Lifespan/Longevity
Pseudotriton montanus has been found to live past 15 years in captivity. The lifespan of mud salamanders in nature has not been well documented. ("Amphibian Declines: The conservation status of United States species", 2005)
Behavior
Mud salamanders are not migratory. They tend to stay near water sources and places where they can burrow. Mud salamanders often build underground passages and underwater tunnels. These animals stay at the entrance of the burrow, retreating when threatened. This habit of retreating into a burrow makes these salamanders difficult to find. (Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2005)
Home Range
The home range size for P. montanus is not known.
Communication and Perception
The communication and perception of this species has not been well studied. The presence of eyes suggests that visual cues may be significant in interpreting the environment. Tactile signals are also important, especially during mating, when a female must be lubricated by glands on a male's tail.
The extent to which these animals use chemical and auditory cues to interpret their environments is not known. (Petranka, 1998)
Food Habits
The eating habits of P. montanus have not been well studied. This species is thought to eat earthworms, insects, and arthropods. Mud salamanders may also eat other salamanders. (Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2005; Petranka, 1998; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
Primary Diet:
carnivore (insectivore , eats non-insect arthropods, vermivore).
Animal Foods:
amphibians; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms.
Predation
- Common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis)
- water snakes
Garter snakes and water snakes are the main predators of mud salamanders.
Psudotriton montanus has complex antipredator defenses, including warning signals and toxic secretions. When threatened, a salamander tucks its head against its body. Then it rears up its hind legs and tail, balancing its weight on the forelegs. The tail curls over the head. This defensive posture, as well as a toxic substance that is secreted along the salamander's back, fends off predators. (Petranka, 1998)
Anti-predator adaptations::
aposematic .
Ecosystem Roles
The ecosystem roles of mud salamanders are not well understood. The species is a generalist predator on small invertebrates in its habitat, but the extent to which these animals affect prey populations is unknown. Further, the importance of salamandersin the diets of their predators is not known. More research is needed on this species. (Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 2004)
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There is no known negative economic importance of P. montanus for humans.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
There is no known positive economic importance of P. montanus for humans.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: [link]:
Least Concern.
US Federal List: [link]:
No special status.
CITES: [link]:
No special status.
Research on mud salamanders has not been extensive and sightings tend to be rare. The species is not thought to be threatened, but degradation of water quality and habitat loss are possible threats to mud salamanders. A thorough consideration of the conservation status of P. montanus requires more information than is currently available. ("Amphibian Declines: The conservation status of United States species", 2005; Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2005)
Contributors
Christopher Smart (author), Kalamazoo College. Ann Fraser (editor, instructor), Kalamazoo College.
Nancy Shefferly (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
