Lampsilis cariosa

Ge­o­graphic Range

Lamp­silis car­iosa, also known as the yel­low lamp­mus­sel, is a fresh­wa­ter mus­sel na­tive to east­ern North Amer­ica, span­ning from Geor­gia in the United States to Nova Sco­tia in Canada. (Kelly and Rhymer, 2005; Sabine, et al., 2004)

Habi­tat

Lamp­silis car­iosa is found pri­mar­ily in larger streams and rivers with a mod­er­ate-to-fast stream flow, es­pe­cially in rif­fles. The yel­low lamp­mus­sel is most com­mon in rivers with drainages ex­ceed­ing 1200 km^2. The mus­sel lives mostly buried within the streambed sub­strate, and fa­vors a level sand and gravel sub­strate or sands down­stream from large rocks and boul­ders. Though less com­mon, L. car­iosa has also been found in lakes. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Amer­i­can Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2013; Jirka and Strayer, 1997; Sabine, et al., 2004; Strayer, 1993)

  • Aquatic Biomes
  • benthic
  • lakes and ponds
  • rivers and streams

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

The yel­low lamp­mus­sel is a nearly egg-shaped mus­sel with a rounded edge, though adult male mus­sels ap­pear more elon­gated than fe­males. In­di­vid­u­als av­er­age 75 mm in length, but the largest in­di­vid­u­als may grow to 130 mm and have a shell up to 4.0 mm thick. Lamp­silis car­iosa, like other bi­valves, has two valves, or shells, that con­nect at the umbo. The umbo is the old­est part of the mus­sel, and it is mod­er­ately swollen in thick­ness and some­what dou­ble-looped in pat­tern. The out­er­most layer of the shell, or pe­rios­tracum, is clear and glossy yel­low in color. As in­di­vid­u­als age, the shiny yel­low­ish color dark­ens. Fine green rays are un­com­mon in L. car­iosa, but when pre­sent are clearly de­fined and found only on the pos­te­rior angle of the shell. The yel­low lamp­mus­sel may be con­fused with other Lamp­silis species, such as Lamp­silis ovata or Lep­todea ochracea, but the pres­ence of green rays wide­spread across the valves on these species tra­di­tion­ally acts as a means for dis­tin­guish­ing them from L. car­iosa.

On the in­side of the shell, the inner sur­face, or nacre, of the yel­low lamp­mus­sel is glossy white or bluish-white in color. The mus­sel has hinge teeth that as­sist in keep­ing the two valves in align­ment at the an­te­rior-dor­sal re­gion of the shell. The left valve has two pseudo­car­di­nal teeth, and the right valve has one. These teeth, in ad­di­tion to the mus­sel's lat­eral teeth, are dis­tinct and promi­nent, but they vary in shape.

Man­tle tis­sue, or the soft tis­sue lin­ing the in­side of the mus­sel, is smooth, gray, and has darker mark­ings of streaks or dots. Fe­males of L. car­iosa have a well-de­vel­oped man­tle, which is dis­played ex­ter­nally from the mus­sel to act as a lure for fish. Fe­males' man­tle tis­sue is pig­mented and flap-like and has ad­di­tional col­or­ing and the pres­ence of dark eye­spot-like mark­ings. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Amer­i­can Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2013; "Mus­sel glos­sary", 2006; Jirka and Strayer, 1997; The Uni­ver­sity of Geor­gia Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2008; "Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels of the upper Mis­sis­sippi River sys­tem", 2006)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • sexes shaped differently
  • Range length
    130 (high) mm
    5.12 (high) in
  • Average length
    100 mm
    3.94 in

De­vel­op­ment

Lamp­silis car­iosa has an in­tri­cate life cycle that be­gins with a par­a­sitic lar­val stage, char­ac­ter­is­tic of unionid bi­valves, known as a glochid­ium (pl. glochidia). Com­posed of chiti­nous valves, the glochid­ium re­sem­bles a minia­ture ver­sion of the adult mus­sel and is typ­i­cally 0.3 mm or smaller. Glochidia are re­leased into the water col­umn by a fe­male in re­sponse to the fe­male's man­tle lure being struck by a po­ten­tial host fish, ei­ther a white perch (Mo­rone amer­i­cana) or a yel­low perch (Perca flavescens). Upon re­lease, the glochidia at­tach to the host fish by clamp­ing their two valves tightly to­gether around its tis­sue and di­gest­ing the tis­sue be­tween the valves. Once at­tached, the fish host's tis­sues con­tinue to grow around the glochid­ium in re­sponse to its tis­sue dam­age which causes en­cyst­ment of the par­a­sitic lar­vae. While en­cysted, the glochidia un­dergo meta­mor­pho­sis to the ju­ve­nile stage. At the end of its par­a­sitic pe­riod, the length of which is not spec­i­fied in the lit­er­a­ture, the newly de­vel­oped ju­ve­nile ex­cysts from the host fish and falls to the sub­strate where it then bur­rows into the sed­i­ment and grows into an adult mus­sel. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Arey, 1932; Kelly and Rhymer, 2005; Williams, et al., 2008)

Re­pro­duc­tion

The yel­low lamp­mus­sel is dioe­cious and re­pro­duces through sex­ual re­pro­duc­tion, in­clud­ing open fer­til­iza­tion. Dur­ing the sum­mer months, male Lamp­silis car­iosa re­lease their sperm into the water col­umn to be taken in by fe­males through their siphon so as to fer­til­ize their eggs. Water tem­per­a­ture is likely an im­por­tant cue for re­pro­duc­tion to occur, and ga­me­to­ge­n­e­sis in fresh­wa­ter mus­sels has been ob­served to cease in re­sponse to cold water tem­per­a­tures. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; The Uni­ver­sity of Geor­gia Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2008; "Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels of the upper Mis­sis­sippi River sys­tem", 2006)

After fer­til­iza­tion, the eggs de­velop within the fe­male mus­sel's mar­supium, or brood pouch, into par­a­sitic glochidia. Due their par­a­sitic na­ture, L. car­iosa glochidia re­quire a host fish of ei­ther the white or yel­low perch, upon which the glochidia at­tach and con­tinue to ma­ture into adults once re­leased from the gravid fe­male. In order to at­tract a po­ten­tial host fish, fe­males ex­tend their mod­i­fied man­tle flap. This man­tle tis­sue has dis­tinc­tive mark­ings and pig­men­ta­tion such as an ‘eye­spot' which cause it to re­sem­ble a small fish or min­now and acts as a fish lure to in­crease the prob­a­bil­ity of con­tact be­tween man­tle flap and fish. Once this lure is struck by a preda­tory fish, the fully ma­tured glochidia are re­leased by the fe­male and at­tach to the fish's gill or fin tis­sue.

The age at sex­ual ma­tu­rity for L. car­iosa is un­known, as is the pre­cise tim­ing of fer­til­iza­tion, lar­val mat­u­ra­tion and glochidia re­lease; how­ever, most lit­er­a­ture cites fresh­wa­ter mus­sels as be­gin­ning sex­ual re­pro­duc­tion be­tween three and five years of age. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; The Uni­ver­sity of Geor­gia Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2008; Williams, et al., 2008)

  • Breeding season
    Breeding takes place in the summer.
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    3 to 5 years
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    3 to 5 years

Fer­til­ized eggs re­main in­side the fe­male yel­low lamp­mus­sel from sum­mer until spring as they de­velop into par­a­sitic glochidia be­fore being re­leased into the water col­umn. After re­lease, there is no fur­ther parental care. (The Uni­ver­sity of Geor­gia Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2008)

  • Parental Investment
  • pre-hatching/birth
    • provisioning
      • female
    • protecting
      • female

Lifes­pan/Longevity

In the Syd­ney River in Nova Sco­tia, Canada, the av­er­age lifes­pan is recorded as 7.8 years of age (± 2.7 years). In­for­ma­tion for the lifes­pan of Lamp­silis car­iosa in the rest of its range is not avail­able, but it is likely sim­i­lar. The longest known lifes­pan for the yel­low lamp­mus­sel is 17 years. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Amer­i­can Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2013)

  • Range lifespan
    Status: wild
    17 (high) years
  • Average lifespan
    Status: wild
    7.8 years

Be­hav­ior

Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels have a mus­cu­lar foot that al­lows them to bur­row and an­chor into the sub­strate at the bot­tom of their habi­tat. This foot al­lows for some mo­bil­ity within the sed­i­ment, which en­ables in­di­vid­u­als of L. car­iosa to repo­si­tion them­selves for feed­ing or to ac­com­mo­date sea­sonal water level fluc­tu­a­tions. For most of their lives, only the pos­te­rior end of the mus­sel is ex­posed, and the in­di­vid­ual re­mains seden­tary within the sub­strate. The pri­mary means of dis­per­sal for Lamp­silis car­iosa is dur­ing the par­a­sitic glochidial stage when lar­vae are sus­pended in the water col­umn and at­tach them­selves to host fish. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Williams, et al., 2008)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

The mus­sel's long, mus­cu­lar foot, which an­chors it to the stream bot­tom, will be with­drawn back into the in­di­vid­ual and will clamp shut in re­sponse to cues such as phys­i­cal con­tact or being re­moved from the sed­i­ment. Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels are also re­spon­sive to shad­ows. Re­lease of glochidia into the water col­umn by Lamp­silis car­iosa fe­males is trig­gered by phys­i­cal con­tact be­tween host fish and man­tle fish lure. The man­tle fish lure re­sem­bles a small fish typ­i­cally tar­geted by the host fish so as to in­crease the like­li­hood of con­tact. No ad­di­tional in­for­ma­tion is cited in the lit­er­a­ture for com­mu­ni­ca­tion or per­cep­tion by L. car­iosa or mech­a­nisms through which these in­ter­ac­tions occur. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Bru­en­der­man, et al., 2002)

  • Other Communication Modes
  • mimicry

Food Habits

Lamp­silis car­iosa is a fil­ter feeder that helps to re­move tox­ins, de­tri­tus, and mi­croor­gan­isms from both the water col­umn and sed­i­ment as it feeds. Water is taken in by the mus­sel's in­cur­rent siphon and washes over its gills, at which point oxy­gen, food, and other par­ti­cles are re­moved. Algae and small bits of de­cay­ing waste are in­gested as food, as is other fine or­ganic par­tic­u­late mat­ter. Not many specifics are known about fresh­wa­ter mus­sel food and feed­ing habits. Waste from feed­ing is re­leased through the ex­cur­rent siphon as pseu­do­fe­ces, which pro­vides a food source for other fresh­wa­ter or­gan­isms. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Bru­en­der­man, et al., 2002; Williams, et al., 2008)

Pre­da­tion

The lar­val and adult stages of Lamp­silis car­iosa are sub­jected to dif­fer­ent preda­tors. Ju­ve­nile and lar­val yel­low lamp­mus­sels are po­ten­tial prey for ducks, herons, fish, and in­ver­te­brates, whereas older, larger mus­sels are prey to muskrats, ot­ters, and rac­coons. Muskrats are a preda­tor of L. car­iosa found through­out its ge­o­graphic range and can po­ten­tially threaten a pop­u­la­tion's vi­a­bil­ity. How­ever, muskrats tend to pre­fer thin­ner-shelled mus­sel species over L. car­iosa. Be­cause fresh­wa­ter mus­sels with­draw their mus­cu­lar foot in­side their shell when re­moved from the sub­strate in which they are bur­rowed and quickly clamp shut, the thick shell of L. car­iosa acts as a de­fen­sive mech­a­nism and/or de­ter­rent to preda­tors. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Bru­en­der­man, et al., 2002; Kurth, 2007; Sabine, et al., 2004)

Ecosys­tem Roles

Be­cause Lamp­silis car­iosa, like other fresh­wa­ter mus­sels, is a sus­pen­sion feeder, it fil­ters the water sup­ply and im­proves water qual­ity. Ad­di­tion­ally, the pseu­do­fe­ces it re­leases pro­vides food for other fresh­wa­ter or­gan­isms. The yel­low lamp­mus­sel serves a prey to a va­ri­ety of other an­i­mals, in­clud­ing fish, water fowl, and medium sized mam­mals such as ot­ters and muskrats. The white perch (Mo­rone amer­i­cana) and yel­low perch (Perca flavescens) are crit­i­cal dur­ing the life cycle of Lamp­silis car­iosa be­cause they serve as hosts for the par­a­sitic glochidia, which must at­tach to the host fish for meta­mor­pho­sis into a ju­ve­nile to occur. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Kelly and Rhymer, 2005)

Species Used as Host

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

His­tor­i­cally, fresh­wa­ter mus­sels were har­vested and con­sumed by Na­tive Amer­i­cans. From the mid-to-late-1800s, mus­sels were har­vested for their pearls or for their shells, which could be used to pro­duce but­tons. Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels such as Lamp­silis car­iosa act as eco­log­i­cal in­di­ca­tor species due to their sen­si­tiv­ity to en­vi­ron­men­tal changes. (Mock, et al., 2004; Williams, et al., 2008)

  • Positive Impacts
  • food
  • body parts are source of valuable material
  • research and education

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

There are no know ad­verse ef­fects of Lamp­silis car­iosa on hu­mans.

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

The yel­low lamp­mus­sel is listed as an en­dan­gered species and is threat­ened by habi­tat de­struc­tion, de­clin­ing water qual­ity, damming and chan­nel­iza­tion of wa­ter­ways, runoff from farms, pre­da­tion, and non-na­tive or in­va­sive species in­tro­duc­tion. Due to their lim­ited mo­bil­ity, fresh­wa­ter mus­sels are par­tic­u­larly vul­ner­a­ble.

In­va­sive species such as the zebra mus­sel (Dreis­sena poly­mor­pha) and the Asian clam (Cor­bic­ula flu­minea) are po­ten­tially se­vere threats for the na­tive yel­low lamp­mus­sel. These in­va­sive species form colonies in large num­bers and may cause the death of L. car­iosa pop­u­la­tions.

Be­cause Lamp­silis car­iosa re­quires a spe­cific host fish for its life cycle, many con­ser­va­tion ef­forts focus on pro­tect­ing the host fish in ad­di­tion to the mus­sel it­self. Any ob­sta­cle that redi­rects nat­ural water flow may in­hibit host fish move­ment and there­fore glochidia dis­per­sal for L. car­iosa. Some ef­forts to pre­serve the species as a re­sult of dam con­struc­tion have in­cluded translo­cat­ing in­di­vid­u­als else­where within the wa­ter­way; how­ever, in­di­vid­u­als do not al­ways sur­vive the translo­ca­tion process.

Pro­hi­bi­tion of the killing of fish and mus­sels aside from the act of fish­ing, pre­vent­ing harm­ful ac­tiv­i­ties to the habi­tat it­self (in­clud­ing al­ter­ation, dis­rup­tion and de­struc­tion), and reg­u­lat­ing the usage/de­po­si­tion of chem­i­cals or sub­stances that may im­pact water qual­ity are all steps that have been taken to help pre­serve the species. ("Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed", 2009; Bogan, 1996; Kurth, 2007; Williams, et al., 1993)

Con­trib­u­tors

Yese­nia M Werner (au­thor), The Col­lege of New Jer­sey, Keith Pecor (ed­i­tor), The Col­lege of New Jer­sey, An­gela Miner (ed­i­tor), An­i­mal Di­ver­sity Web Staff.

Glossary

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

benthic

Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

detritivore

an animal that mainly eats decomposed plants and/or animals

detritus

particles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms. Detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers (organisms that decompose organic material).

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

filter-feeding

a method of feeding where small food particles are filtered from the surrounding water by various mechanisms. Used mainly by aquatic invertebrates, especially plankton, but also by baleen whales.

food

A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.

freshwater

mainly lives in water that is not salty.

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

heterothermic

having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

mimicry

imitates a communication signal or appearance of another kind of organism

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

ovoviviparous

reproduction in which eggs develop within the maternal body without additional nourishment from the parent and hatch within the parent or immediately after laying.

parasite

an organism that obtains nutrients from other organisms in a harmful way that doesn't cause immediate death

phytoplankton

photosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton; mainly unicellular algae. (Compare to zooplankton.)

polarized light

light waves that are oriented in particular direction. For example, light reflected off of water has waves vibrating horizontally. Some animals, such as bees, can detect which way light is polarized and use that information. People cannot, unless they use special equipment.

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sedentary

remains in the same area

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

solitary

lives alone

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

Ref­er­ences

United States Fish and Wildlife Ser­vice. 2006. "Fresh­wa­ter mus­sels of the upper Mis­sis­sippi River sys­tem" (On-line). Ac­cessed Oc­to­ber 01, 2013 at http://​www.​fws.​gov/​midwest/​mussel/​glossary.​html.

Fish­eries and Oceans Canada. Man­age­ment Plan for the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in Canada - Pro­posed. En3-5/6-2009E. Ot­tawa: Fish­eries and Oceans Canada. 2009. Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 04, 2013 at http://​publications.​gc.​ca/​site/​eng/​359075/​publication.​html.

Illi­nois State Mu­seum. 2006. "Mus­sel glos­sary" (On-line). Ac­cessed Oc­to­ber 01, 2013 at http://​www.​museum.​state.​il.​us/​ismdepts/​zoology/​mussels/​mussel_​glossary.​html.

Amer­i­can Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2013. "Lamp­silis car­iosa species sum­mary" (On-line). Genus Lamp­silis. Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 08, 2013 at http://​www.​amnh.​org/​our-research/​center-for-biodiversity-conservation/​research/​species-based-research/​invertebrate-conservation/​freshwater-mussels/​mussel-species/​genus-lampsilis.

Arey, L. 1932. The for­ma­tion and struc­ture of the glochidial cyst. Bi­o­log­i­cal Bul­letin, 62.2: 212-221.

Bogan, A. 1996. "Lamp­silis car­iosa" (On-line). Ac­cessed Oc­to­ber 01, 2013 at www.​iucnredlist.​org.

Bru­en­der­man, S., J. Stern­burg, C. Barn­hart. 2002. "Mis­souri’s Fresh­wa­ter Mus­sels" (On-line pdf). Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 04, 2013 at http://​molluskconservation.​org/​Library/​Maps/​pdfs/​Missouri-freshwater.​pdf.

Jirka, K., D. Strayer. 1997. "The Pearly Mus­sels of New York State" (On-line pdf). Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 04, 2013 at http://​www.​nysm.​nysed.​gov/​pubsforsale/​detail.​cfm?​pubID=5222.

Kelly, M., J. Rhymer. 2005. Pop­u­la­tion ge­netic struc­ture of a rare unionid (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in a re­cently glaciated land­scape. Con­ser­va­tion Ge­net­ics, 6: 789-802.

Kurth, J. 2007. Meth­ods for the Translo­ca­tion of the Yel­low Lamp­mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) and the Tide­wa­ter Mucket (Lep­todea ochracea) in the Fort Hal­i­fax Dam Im­pound­ment of the Se­bas­ti­cok River, Maine. Orono: Uni­ver­sity of Maine. Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 04, 2013 at http://​www.​library.​umaine.​edu/​theses/​theses.​asp?​Cmd=abstract&​ID=EES2007-002.

Mock, J., J. Brim-Box, M. Miller, M. Down­ing, W. Hoeh. 2004. Ge­netic di­ver­sity and di­ver­gence among fresh­wa­ter mus­sel (An­odonta) pop­u­la­tions in the Bon­neville Basin of Utah. Mol­e­c­u­lar Ecol­ogy, 13: 1085-1098.

Sabine, D., S. Make­peace, D. McAlpine. 2004. The yel­low lamp mus­sel (Lamp­silis car­iosa) in New Brunswick: a pop­u­la­tion of sig­nif­i­cant con­ser­va­tion value. North­east­ern Nat­u­ral­ist, 11/4: 407-420.

Strayer, D. 1993. Macro­hab­i­tats of fresh­wa­ter mus­sels (Bi­valvia:Unionacea) in streams of the North­ern At­lantic Slope. Jour­nal of the North Amer­i­can Ben­tho­log­i­cal So­ci­ety, 12.3: 236-246.

The Uni­ver­sity of Geor­gia Mu­seum of Nat­ural His­tory, 2008. "Yel­low lamp­mus­sel: Lamp­silis car­iosa" (On-line). Ac­cessed Oc­to­ber 01, 2013 at http://​naturalhistory.​uga.​edu/​~GMNH/gaw­ildlife/index.​php?page=species­pages/ai_species_­page&key=lcar­iosa.

Williams, J., A. Bogan, J. Gar­ner, E. Wil­son. 2008. Fresh­wa­ter Mus­sels of Al­abama and the Mo­bile Basin in Geor­gia, Mis­sis­sippi, and Ten­nessee. Al­abama: Uni­ver­sity of Al­abama Press.

Williams, J., M. War­ren, Jr., K. Cum­mings, J. Har­ris, R. Neves. 1993. Con­ser­va­tion sta­tus of fresh­wa­ter mus­sels of the United States and Canada. Fish­eries, 18.9: 6-22.