Animal Diversity Web

Ge­o­graphic Range

East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes (Aedes tris­e­riatus) are the most com­mon tree­hole mos­qui­toes in the United States. Na­tive to the Nearc­tic re­gion, they can be found in south­ern Canada and the east­ern United States. Their range ex­tends as far south as the Florida Keys, and west to Idaho, Utah, and Texas. In Canada, they are wide­spread in the south­ern parts of British Co­lum­bia, Que­bec, On­tario, and Saskatchewan. While they have not es­tab­lished pop­u­la­tions over­seas, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes do have the po­ten­tial for range ex­pan­sion. In 2001, a spec­i­men was found in France in a ship­ment of used tires from the United States, but was im­me­di­ately killed. With the preva­lence of over­seas travel and com­merce, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes could cer­tainly es­tab­lish them­selves in re­gions of Eu­rope, if care is not taken. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013; Med­lock, et al., 2012)

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic
  • native

Habi­tat

Lar­vae of east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are aquatic, and live in wa­ter-filled cav­i­ties, typ­i­cally in de­cid­u­ous trees, giv­ing the species their com­mon name. Lar­vae can also be found in man-made con­tain­ers that col­lect rain water, such as tubs, bar­rels, and aban­doned tires. Adult fe­males tend to oviposit in forested, shaded areas with dense under sto­ries, gen­er­ally avoid­ing open areas. Adults are ter­res­trial, and are usu­ally found in forests, as well as sub­ur­ban areas lo­cated near forests. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Ellis, 2008; Leisnham and Ju­liano, 2012)

• Habitat Regions
• temperate
• terrestrial
• freshwater

• Terrestrial Biomes
• forest

• Other Habitat Features
• suburban

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are a medium-sized mos­quito species. Fe­males are gen­er­ally larger, al­though the col­oration is sim­i­lar be­tween the sexes. Their pro­boscis and their short palpi are black. The pos­te­rior of their head is cov­ered in sil­ver-white scales. Their tho­rax is brown or black, with a wide me­dian stripe of dark brown, and their sides are white. Their scutel­lum is dark brown. Their ab­domen is blue-black, with patches of white lat­er­ally. Their wings are about 3.5 to 4.0 mm in length, with dark scales. Their hind fe­murs are yel­low­ish-white, and dark to­wards the ends. Femora, tibia, and tarsi are all black. Lar­vae are long and thin, with seg­mented bod­ies, and are typ­i­cally cream col­ored or brown. They have a breath­ing tube on their pos­te­rior end. East­ern tree­hole mos­quito lar­vae can be dis­tin­guished from re­lated species by comb scales in dou­ble roles, anal papilla of un­equal length, and multi-branched lat­eral hair on the anal sad­dle. Pupae are a sim­i­lar color, with a shorter, curved body. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Costanzo, et al., 2011; Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013)

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic
• heterothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• female larger

De­vel­op­ment

East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are holometabolous. Eggs over­win­ter on the sides of tree holes and other con­tain­ers, and hatch in the spring when they are cov­ered by water col­lected in the cav­i­ties, in re­sponse to the lack of oxy­gen. Water tem­per­a­tures must be 4.1 to 12 de­grees Cel­sius for eggs to begin hatch­ing. Hatch­ing is also in­flu­enced by a va­ri­ety of other en­vi­ron­men­tal fac­tors, and the eggs usu­ally do not all hatch at once. Hatch­ings occur in waves, which is use­ful in case of drought. If the tree hole dries up, the lar­vae will die, but eggs that have not yet hatched are still vi­able for when the tree hole fills with water again. Some eggs hatch after the first rain­fall, while oth­ers do not hatch until there have been many rain­falls. Hatch­ing can also be de­layed if there is a high lar­val den­sity al­ready in the tree hole, or in re­sponse to older mos­quito lar­vae in the water, which al­lows for newly hatched lar­vae to avoid com­pet­ing for re­sources with older in­stars. Once the eggs hatch, there are four lar­val in­stars. Time of lar­val de­vel­op­ment de­pends on re­source avail­abil­ity, with higher amounts of de­tri­tus al­low­ing for faster de­vel­op­ment and larger adults. They then molt into pupae, and then eclose and leave the water as adults. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Edgerly and Liv­dahl, 1992; Ellis, 2008; Har­shaw, et al., 2007; Khatchikian, et al., 2009; Leisnham and Ju­liano, 2012; Williams, et al., 2007)

The de­vel­op­ment of east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes has a high level of plas­tic­ity, and varies among re­gions and even from year to year. This is also due to de­layed hatch­ings, amount of rain­fall, tem­per­a­ture, and re­source avail­abil­ity. As a re­sult, there are usu­ally mul­ti­ple co­horts and all in­star stages pre­sent at once. Some pop­u­la­tions have been ob­served as uni­vol­tine, with one pop­u­la­tion per year. In these pop­u­la­tions, lar­vae first ap­peared in mid-March, 2nd in­stars ap­peared in mid-April, with many first in­stars pre­sent. Four weeks later, all in­star stages were pre­sent, with some pupae, and then adults pre­sent in June and July. Other pop­u­la­tions have mul­ti­ple gen­er­a­tions per year. First in­stars first ap­peared in mid-April, and after 3 weeks, some 4th in­star lar­vae were pre­sent. Pupae were pre­sent by the end of May. The first gen­er­a­tion took about 6 weeks to de­velop into adults. In early June, a sec­ond gen­er­a­tion oc­curred, re­sult­ing in pupae 2 to 3 weeks later. A third gen­er­a­tion de­vel­oped into 2nd in­star lar­vae by early June, pu­pat­ing within a week or two af­ter­ward. De­vel­op­ment of the later gen­er­a­tions took only about 3 weeks. Even small fourth gen­er­a­tions have been ob­served, be­gin­ning in mid-Au­gust, though these might not have enough time to de­velop into adults be­fore win­ter ar­rives. In some mid­dle re­gions of their range, where the tree holes do not com­pletely freeze, some lar­vae will di­a­pause dur­ing the win­ter, in ad­di­tion to over­win­ter­ing eggs. In the most south­ern parts of their range, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are ac­tive year round. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Edgerly and Liv­dahl, 1992; Ellis, 2008; Har­shaw, et al., 2007; Khatchikian, et al., 2009; Leisnham and Ju­liano, 2012; Williams, et al., 2007)

• Development - Life Cycle
• metamorphosis
• diapause

Re­pro­duc­tion

Fe­male east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes must take a blood meal be­fore mat­ing, to ma­ture a batch of eggs. Males find fe­male mates by de­tect­ing the buzzing sound made by their beat­ing wings, which is species spe­cific. Mat­ing typ­i­cally oc­curs in the mid­dle of the sum­mer, from June to July, but due to the high plas­tic­ity of this species' de­vel­op­ment cycle, mat­ing may also occur later in the sea­son as later gen­er­a­tions de­velop quickly and emerge as adults. In the south­ern­most re­gion of their range, they mate year round. Typ­i­cally, fe­males only mate once, but some fe­males live long enough to take a sec­ond blood meal and un­dergo a sec­ond ovipo­si­tion cycle. In very rare cir­cum­stances, fe­males live long enough to un­dergo a third cycle. Hy­bridiza­tions have been recorded oc­cur­ring be­tween east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes and other mos­quito species, in­clud­ing Aedes hen­der­soni. In­ter­est­ingly, fe­males in­fected with La Crosse en­cephali­tis virus, for which this species is a vec­tor, are more ef­fi­cient at mat­ing than non-in­fected fe­males. In­fected fe­males have an in­creased, ear­lier sperm trans­fer. (Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013; Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013; Frank­ino and Ju­liano, 1999; Gib­son and Rus­sell, 2006; Reese, et al., 2009; Spiel­man and D'An­to­nio, 2001)

• Mating System
• polygynandrous (promiscuous)

After mat­ing, eggs are laid on the side of water filled holes or other man-made con­tain­ers. The eggs are laid singly or in groups of 2 to 5. They are laid just above the water line, and will not hatch until they have been cov­ered with water of a cer­tain tem­per­a­ture, along with sev­eral other fac­tors. Fe­males typ­i­cally only lay one batch of eggs, though some do sur­vive long enough to mate a sec­ond time and lay a sec­ond batch. Stud­ies have shown that fe­males are more likely to lay eggs in cav­i­ties that al­ready have eggs in them. The pres­ence of or­ganic mat­ter in the water is also pos­si­bly an ap­peal­ing fac­tor for fe­males when search­ing for an ovipo­si­tion site. Stud­ies have also shown fe­male east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are more at­tracted to dyed water. Ovipo­si­tion rates are re­port­edly high­est in July, though this varies by re­gion, as the south­ern­most pop­u­la­tions can breed year round. La Crosse en­cephali­tis virus is trans­mit­ted ver­ti­cally from par­ent to off­spring. The virus over­win­ters in the eggs. (Beehler, et al., 1992; Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Ellis, 2008; Reese, et al., 2009; Spiel­man and D'An­to­nio, 2001)

• Key Reproductive Features
• semelparous
• seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual
• fertilization
  • internal
• oviparous

• Breeding interval

  Eastern treehole mosquitoes typically mate once, though some females survive for multiple mating and egg laying cycles.

• Breeding season

  Breeding occurs during June and July, but this varies by region.

Adult east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes pro­vide pro­vi­sion­ing in the eggs, as well as lay the eggs in suit­able wa­ter-filled tree holes or other cav­i­ties. Oth­er­wise, there is no more parental care. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955)

• Parental Investment
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female

Lifes­pan/Longevity

Fe­males live any­where from about 2 to 5 weeks after reach­ing adult­hood. Males likely live for a shorter pe­riod of time. (Frank­ino and Ju­liano, 1999)

• Typical lifespan
  Status: wild

  11 to 40 days

• Typical lifespan
  Status: captivity

  11 to 40 days

Be­hav­ior

Adult east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are mainly cre­pus­cu­lar, with the fe­males tak­ing most of their blood meals dur­ing dawn and dusk. Males are ac­tive dur­ing this time, for­ag­ing for food, and search­ing for mates. Fe­males in­fected with La Crosse virus show be­hav­ioral changes. When tak­ing blood meals, in­fected fe­males probe more and en­gorge less. This re­sults in more feed­ings, re­sult­ing in more virus trans­mis­sions. Lar­vae can often be found float­ing near the water sur­face, with their breath­ing tubes stick­ing out of the water. Lar­vae are rea­son­ably ac­tive, and move with a wrig­gling mo­tion. They leave the sur­face to feed in the ben­thos and water col­umn, and dart down to the bot­tom of the cav­ity when dis­turbed. Lar­val den­sity can be very high in their tree holes. Stud­ies have found any­where from 60 lar­vae per 100 ml to 150 or more per 100 ml. Pupae tend to be much less ac­tive than lar­vae, and re­main float­ing at the sur­face of the water. They can still sense a threat, how­ever, and can move away when nec­es­sary. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Reese, et al., 2009; Williams, et al., 2007)

• Key Behaviors
• flies
• crepuscular
• parasite
• motile
• sedentary
• social

Home Range

Lar­val live in small tree holes and con­tain­ers, which they do not leave until eclo­sion. Adults likely re­main in the same gen­eral re­gion from which they emerged. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

The pri­mary sen­sory struc­tures for mos­qui­toes are their an­ten­nae, pro­boscis, and tip of their ab­domen. Mos­qui­toes ac­tively groom these sen­silla, likely clear­ing them of ob­struc­tive par­ti­cles. At the base of the an­ten­nae is an au­di­tory organ. Males iden­tify mates though sound, by de­tect­ing the wing beat­ing tones of the fe­males, which cre­ates the buzzing sound that mos­qui­toes are known for pro­duc­ing in flight. This sound is species spe­cific. When search­ing for blood meals, fe­males typ­i­cally de­tect chem­i­cals and other cues to find hosts, such as car­bon diox­ide. They can also vi­su­ally de­tect hosts, other mos­qui­toes, and the en­vi­ron­ment as a whole. Fe­males use their pro­boscis to tac­tilely probe the skin of the host, and may rein­sert the pro­boscis sev­eral times until they have found a suit­able blood ves­sel. Light is also typ­i­cally a strong at­trac­tant for mos­qui­toes, but some stud­ies have re­ported that light traps are not par­tic­u­larly ef­fec­tive for catch­ing east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes. Lar­vae can also de­tect chem­i­cal sig­nals, typ­i­cally alarm sig­nals, which would be pro­duced by a neigh­bor­ing larva when at­tacked or eaten by a preda­tor. (Costanzo, et al., 2011; Gib­son and Rus­sell, 2006; Spiel­man and D'An­to­nio, 2001; Walker and Archer, 1988)

• Communication Channels
• visual
• acoustic
• chemical

• Perception Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

Food Habits

Adult mos­qui­toes are typ­i­cally nec­tari­vores. Males feed solely on nec­tar, while fe­males take blood meals in ad­di­tion to nec­tar. These acts of par­a­sitism must occur be­fore a fe­male is able to ma­ture her eggs and mate. Small mam­mals are the typ­i­cal host of east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes, par­tic­u­larly chip­munks and squir­rels. They have also been ob­served feed­ing from birds, as well as larger mam­mals, in­clud­ing hu­mans. Lar­vae of east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are de­tri­ti­vores. They fil­ter feed and browse or­ganic de­tri­tus from leaf lit­ter, as well as mi­crobes and par­ti­cles of de­cay­ing in­ver­te­brates. Their feed­ing takes place pri­mar­ily in the ben­thos and water col­umn. Though there is some dis­agree­ment be­tween re­searchers, can­ni­bal­ism of ear­lier in­stars by older lar­vae may occur. (Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Ellis, 2008; Har­shaw, et al., 2007; Koenekoop and Liv­dahl, 1986; Spiel­man and D'An­to­nio, 2001; Tuten, et al., 2012)

• Primary Diet
• herbivore
  • nectarivore

• Animal Foods
• blood

• Other Foods
• detritus
• microbes

• Foraging Behavior
• filter-feeding

Pre­da­tion

The main preda­tors of east­ern tree­hole mos­quito lar­vae are other lar­vae that co-habi­tate in their wa­ter-filled tree holes and cav­i­ties. Lar­vae of the mos­qui­toes Tox­orhyn­chites ru­tilus and Anophe­les bar­beri, as well as lar­vae of the midge Corethrella ap­pen­dic­u­lata, are preda­tory and are often found in tree holes with east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes. In some re­gions of the coun­try, the lar­vae face lit­tle to no pre­da­tion. In the pres­ence of a preda­tor, east­ern tree­hole mos­quito lar­vae de­crease their ac­tiv­ity, often by just rest­ing at the sur­face. Preda­tors of adults in­clude ants, bee­tles, preda­tory hemipter­ans, bats, birds, and other op­por­tunis­tic ver­te­brates. Adults are es­pe­cially vul­ner­a­ble to ter­res­trial preda­tors shortly after eclo­sion, when they are weak and un­steady. (Alto, et al., 2009; Costanzo, et al., 2011; Ellis, 2008; Nan­nini and Ju­liano, 1998; Rochlin, et al., 2013; Spiel­man and D'An­to­nio, 2001)

• Known Predators

  • mosquito larvae (Toxorhynchites rutilus)
  • mosquito larvae (Anopheles barberi)
  • midge larvae (Corethrella appendiculata)
  • ants (Formicidae)
  • beetles (Coleoptera)
  • hemipterans (Hemiptera)
  • bats (Chiroptera)
  • birds (Aves)

Ecosys­tem Roles

East­ern tree­hole mos­quito lar­vae have a sig­nif­i­cant pres­ence in tree hole com­mu­ni­ties, and are often the dom­i­nant species. They are often found in the same wa­ter-filled tree holes and cav­i­ties as other lar­val mos­quito species, in­clud­ing Anophe­les bar­beri, Or­thopodomyia species, Tox­orhyn­chites ru­tilus septen­tri­on­alis, and Aedes zooso­phus. East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes also occur sym­patri­cally with Aedes hen­der­soni, and hy­bridiza­tions can occur be­tween the two species. Lar­vae are often prey to preda­tory mos­quito lar­vae in­hab­it­ing the same tree holes. East­ern tree­hole mos­quito lar­vae can also be in­fected by par­a­sitic gre­garines, As­cogre­ga­rina bar­retti, which are found in the gut of the lar­vae, as well as in pupae and adults. There has been much focus on the in­ter­ac­tions of east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes with other in­va­sive tree hole mos­qui­toes. Lar­vae of Aedes al­bopic­tus, the Asian tiger mos­quito, and Aedes japon­i­cus, often live in the same tree holes. Aedes al­bopic­tus and A. japon­cius seem to out­com­pete east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes for re­sources, which has re­sulted in some de­clines in their pop­u­la­tion. Since Aedes al­bopic­tus can also vec­tor the La Crosse en­cephali­tis virus, this is un­for­tu­nately not help­ful to hu­mans and other virus hosts. How­ever, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes seem to be able to still sur­vive rea­son­ably well in the same tree holes with these in­va­sive species. Aedes al­bopic­tus ap­pears to be more sus­cep­ti­ble to pre­da­tion and east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes also over­win­ter more suc­cess­fully as eggs, and emerges first, al­low­ing them to col­o­nize tree holes and uti­lize re­sources ear­lier than ei­ther of the in­va­sive species, al­low­ing them to co-ex­ist. (Alto, et al., 2009; Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013; Leisnham and Ju­liano, 2012; Rochlin, et al., 2013)

Fe­male east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are par­a­sitic, and re­quire blood meals be­fore they can suc­cess­fully re­pro­duce. They typ­i­cally feed on small mam­mals, such as chip­munks and squir­rels, though they may also feed on birds and other larger mam­mals, in­clud­ing hu­mans. East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are the main vec­tors for the La Crosse en­cephali­tis virus in the United States, and can trans­mit the dis­ease to hu­mans, as well as east­ern chip­munks, gray squir­rels, and red foxes. They also trans­mit a large va­ri­ety of other dis­eases to hu­mans and many other do­mes­tic and non-do­mes­tic an­i­mals, in­clud­ing West Nile virus, east­ern equine en­cephali­tis, and Diro­fi­laria im­mi­tis. (Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013; Leisnham and Ju­liano, 2012; Reese, et al., 2009; Tuten, et al., 2012)

• Ecosystem Impact
• parasite

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes have pro­vided a vast amount of re­search op­por­tu­ni­ties, as sci­en­tists study the tree hole com­mu­ni­ties, their in­ter­ac­tions with and re­sponses to in­va­sive mos­quito species, and their role as a vec­tor for a large va­ri­ety of both human and zoonotic dis­eases. Oth­er­wise, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes have no pos­i­tive ef­fects on hu­mans. (Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013)

• Positive Impacts
• research and education

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

Fe­male east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are par­a­sitic, and take blood meals from many small mam­mals, as well as hu­mans. Their bites can be painful and very ir­ri­tat­ing. East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes are the main vec­tors of the La Crosse en­cephali­tis virus in the United States. La Crosse en­cephali­tis often has no symp­toms, but can cause fever, headache, nau­sea, vom­it­ing, and fa­tigue. Se­vere cases, which occur most often in chil­dren, can re­sult in se­vere neu­roin­va­sive dis­ease, as well as en­cephali­tis, which can cause seizures, coma, and paral­y­sis. Long term dis­abil­ity or death can occur in very rare cases. There are about 80 to 100 cases in the United States each year, but this num­ber is likely un­der­re­ported, as La Crosse virus can have no symp­toms. In ad­di­tion to La Crosse virus, east­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes can also vec­tor Cache Val­ley virus, east­ern equine en­cephali­tis, High­lands J virus, Jamestown Canyon virus, and West Nile virus. Ad­di­tion­ally, they can also trans­mit Diro­fi­laria im­mi­tis, which causes heart­worm in dogs, cats, and other an­i­mals. (CDC, 2009; Car­pen­ter and La Casse, 1955; Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013)

• Negative Impacts
• injures humans
  • bites or stings
  • carries human disease
• causes or carries domestic animal disease

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

East­ern tree­hole mos­qui­toes have no spe­cial con­ser­va­tion sta­tus. Since they can trans­mit many dis­eases to hu­mans and other an­i­mals, ef­forts are di­rected to­wards con­trol rather than con­ser­va­tion.

• IUCN Red List

  Not Evaluated

• US Federal List

  No special status

• CITES

  No special status

• State of Michigan List

  No special status

Other Com­ments

Aedes tris­e­riatus is also known as Ochlero­ta­tus tris­e­riatus. (Fara­jol­lahi and Price, 2013)

Con­trib­u­tors

An­gela Miner (au­thor), An­i­mal Di­ver­sity Web Staff, Leila Si­cil­iano Mar­tina (ed­i­tor), An­i­mal Di­ver­sity Web Staff.

Ref­er­ences

Alto, B., B. Ke­savaraju, S. Ju­liano, L. Louni­bos. 2009. Stage-de­pen­dent pre­da­tion on com­peti­tors: con­se­quences for the out­come of a mos­quito in­va­sion. Jour­nal of An­i­mal Ecol­ogy, 78/5: 928-936.

Beehler, J., S. Lohr, De­Fo­liart. 1992. Fac­tors in­flu­enc­ing ovipo­si­tion in Aedes tris­e­riatus (Diptera:Culi­ci­dae). The Great Lakes En­to­mol­o­gist, 25/4: 259-264.

CDC, 2009. "La Crosse En­cephali­tis" (On-line). Cen­ters for Dis­ease Con­trol and Pre­ven­tion. Ac­cessed De­cem­ber 06, 2013 at http://​www.​cdc.​gov/​LAC/​index.​html.

Car­pen­ter, S., W. La Casse. 1955. Mos­qui­toes of North Amer­ica. Berke­ley, Cal­i­for­nia: Uni­ver­sity of Cal­i­for­nia Press.

Costanzo, K., E. Mu­turi, B. Alto. 2011. Trait-me­di­ated ef­fects of pre­da­tion across life-his­tory stages in con­tainer mos­qui­toes. Eco­log­i­cal En­to­mol­ogy, 36/5: 605-615.

Edgerly, J., T. Liv­dahl. 1992. Den­sity-De­pen­dent In­ter­ac­tions Within a Com­plex Life Cycle: The Roles of Co­hort Struc­ture and Mode of Re­cruit­ment. Jour­nal of An­i­mal Ecol­ogy, 61/1: 139-150.

Ellis, A. 2008. In­cor­po­rat­ing den­sity de­pen­dence into the ovipo­si­tion pref­er­ence - off­spring per­for­mance hy­poth­e­sis. Jour­nal of An­i­mal Ecol­ogy, 77/2: 247-256.

Fara­jol­lahi, A., D. Price. 2013. A rapid iden­ti­fi­ca­tion guide for lar­vae of the most com­mon North Amer­i­can con­tainer-in­hab­it­ing Aedes species of med­ical im­por­tance. Jour­nal of the Amer­i­can Mos­quito Con­trol As­so­ci­a­tion, 29/3: 203-221.

Frank­ino, W., S. Ju­liano. 1999. Costs of re­pro­duc­tion and ge­o­graphic vari­a­tion in the re­pro­duc­tive tac­tics of the mos­quito Aedes tris­e­riatus. Oe­colo­gia, 120/1: 59-68.

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