Plethodon nettingi
Cheat Mountain Salamander

Cheat Mountain salamanders are limited in distribution to 4 counties in West Virginia: Randolph, Pocahontas, Tucker, and Pendleton counties. This salamander’s habitat stretches approximately 30 by 80 km from McGowan Mountain to Backbone Mountain, in Tucker County (Green and Pauley 1987). (Green and Pauley, 1987; Green and Pauley, 1987)

Cheat Mountain salamanders are limited to areas of young red spruce (Picea rubens) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) in West Virginia forests. They have been discovered on the southern face of the Cheat Mountain Range at high altitudes of 960 m. An individual salamander was discovered in 2002 in an open-canopied Sphagnum/Picea wetland in Canaan Valley (Tucker County, West Virginia; K. Francl, personal communication). During the day, Cheat Mountain salamanders reside under long, flat rocks or on the inside of fallen and rotting spruce logs. At twilight they can move short distances to nearby spruce trees (Green and Pauley 1987). (Green and Pauley, 1987)

Cheat Mountain salamanders are dark brown or black, though the color tends to be lighter around the throat. They have tiny spots of gold on their dorsal surfaces (Brooks 1948). These slim and petite salamanders usually mature to a size of 10.2 cm (Green and Pauley 1987). Adults tend to have 17 to 19 coastal grooves, and an average of 5.5 coastal folds. Males often have larger, more engorged snouts (Thurow 1955). (Brooks, 1948; Green and Pauley, 1987; Thurow, 1955)

Cheat Mountain salamander eggs are approximately 4.9 to 5.0 mm when fertilized. When they are hatched they measure from 1.7 to 1.8 cm. During development, young have extremely large gills for sufficient oxygen flow through the jellied membranes, which prevent dehydration of the embryos (Lynn 1961). These salamanders continue to grow in size non-uniformly - the tail grows first and then the abdomen (Thurow 1955) continues to grow and stretch until reaching adult size (Green and Pauley 1987). Adults may reach 10.2 cm. During development young have extremely large gills for sufficient oxygen flow through the jellied membranes, which prevent dehydration of the embryos (Lynn 1961). (Green and Pauley, 1987; Lynn, 1961; Thurow, 1955)

Not much is known about mating in Cheat Mountain salamanders. However, in a close relative, Plethodon cinereus, larger males that attract the most females tend to roam in prey-filled territories that lack the scent of other females. Once the two sexes have paired, they each defend a territory: males defend territories from outside males, and females defend against outside females. Couples have the most success in their defense. Plethodon cinereus individuals are serially monogamous, choosing a different mate for each mating effort, but staying with that mate throughout the mating effort. Males begin to guard their females and can even discipline their mate by threatening postures or nipping the female if he catches another male’s odor. (Ng and Wilbur, 1995)

Cheat Mountain salamander breeding season begins during the spring and lasts through autumn. Spermatophores are transferred in late spring. The gestation period is approximately 1 to 2 months, then the eggs are deposited into cracks of decomposing spruce logs and secured by small pedicles (stalk-like structures). The unpigmented eggs have large yolks compared to other plethodontid salamanders. Pletodon nettingi have eggs and egg masses very similar to those of Plethodon cinereus. Egg masses vary from 4 to 17 eggs, ranging from 0.49 to 0.50 cm wide (Green and Pauley 1987), with at least one or two females very close in proximity to their brood. However, the masses of different mothers are usually very spread out; it is very rare to find more than one clutch in the same spruce log (Brooks 1948). After a period of three to six months growth inside the egg, these broods then hatch from late August to early September (Lannoo 2010); the young vary from 1.7 to 1.8 cm long at hatching (Green and Pauley 1987). The only aspect of sexual maturity known about Cheat Mountain salamanders is that they reach maturity when males have swollen cloacas and squared-off snouts, and females have mature follicles (Lannoo 2010). As for age of maturation, Plethodon cinereus is about 3 or 4 years of age (Prosen et al. 2006), one may assume the same range for Cheat Mountain salamanders. (Brooks, 1948; Green and Pauley, 1987; Lannoo, 2010; Prosen, et al., 2006)

Not much is known about Cheat Mountain salamander parental investment, but in Plethodon cinereus, the father provides protection only during the breeding season, while the mother cares for her young until they become independent at 6 to 9 weeks old. Instead of leaving the clutch unguarded, females will live off of food stores in their tail and belly. The mother also will sometimes nudge or agitate the eggs in order to stimulate healthy development, and prevent deformations when growth occurs all on one side. She also keeps in close contact with her eggs to provide moisture. The mother defends her nest and continues her parental care until several weeks after hatching (Ng and Wilbur 1995). In one instance a mother was found caring for 8 juveniles (Green and Pauley 1987). (Green and Pauley, 1987; Ng and Wilbur, 1995)

Although not much is known about the longevity of Cheat Mountain salamanders, studies of Plethodon cinereus indicate an average lifetime of 8 years for females and approximately 9 years for males (Leclair et al. 2006). (Leclair, et al., 2006)

Cheat Mountain salamanders are often found under and around large rocks or fallen spruce logs near conspecifics during the day. Although activity is nocturnal, it is dependent upon humidity. On warm and moist evenings P. nettingi will remain active for several hours. On cool, dry nights this salamander emerges for shorter periods (Green and Pauley 1987). Desmognathus ochropheaus, Plethodon cinereus and Plethodon wehrlei are other salamanders most associated within the habitat of P. nettingi. All four species can be located in stands of spruce trees in the pole stage (Brooks 1948). One of the unique aspects about the Plethodon species is that, when presented with danger, these salamanders remain immobile. In one experiment 74.4% of salamanders were still from 1 to 180 seconds whenever they sense danger (Dodd Jr. 1989). (Brooks, 1948; Dodd, Jr., 1989; Green and Pauley, 1987)

Although not much is known about the actual size of home ranges of Cheat Mountain salamanders homerange, 15 X 15 m is the approximate area for Plethodon kentucki (Marvin 1998). (Brooks, 1948; Marvin, 1998)

Testing has showed that Cheat Mountain salamanders have noxious skin properties. Their predators receive a mouthful of white slime originating from the tail region. The predators’ mouths swell up and swallowing becomes increasingly difficult (Dodd et al. 1974). Cheat Mountain salamanders use chemical and tactile cues in mating as well. (Brodie, et al., 1974)

Cheat Mountain salamanders are insectivores. One study of stomach contents of 42 salamanders found 42.1% mites (Acari), 17.8% springtails (Collembola), 16.4% beetles (Coleoptera), 9.3% flies (Diptera), 4.3% ants (Hymenoptera), and 10% other insects or arthropods (Green and Pauley 1987). (Green and Pauley, 1987)

Common predators of Cheat Mountain salamanders are southern short-tailed shrews (Blarina carolinensis), common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), and ring-necked snakes (Diadophis punctatus) (Lannoo 2010). A series of experiments were completed where a number of animals were provided with P. nettingi as part of their diet: blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), sungazers (Cordylus giganteus), and Sonoran mud turtles (Kinosternon sonoriense). These experiments showed that Cheat Mountain salamanders have skin with noxious properties. Those predators, after attempting to eat P. nettingi, had difficulty chewing, swollen tongues, and a sticky white substance seeming to glue the jaws together. After a few of these experiments, the predators learned to avoid Cheat Mountain salamanders (Dodd et al. 1974). (Brodie, et al., 1974; Dodd, Jr., et al., 1974; Lannoo, 2010)

Plethodontid salamanders are important members of foods webs, providing both indirect as well as direct methods of biotic control of species. They also contribute to soil dynamics through their tunneling activities (Davic and Welsh Jr. 2004). Interspecific competition has been noted between Plethodon nettingi and Plethodon cinereus in areas of common habitat. Food foraging and aggression towards non-conspecifics have caused competitive exclusion of P. nettingi by P. cinereus (Kaplan 1977). (Davic and Welsh Jr., 2004; Kaplan, 1977)

Plethodontid salamanders offer an important benefit to humans as indicator species of forested ecosystem health. In an experiment using leaf litter enclosures, the keystone-species Plethodon cinereus, a sister species to P. nettingi, was determined to be a strong regulator of forest floor invertebrate popluations (Davic and Welsh Jr. 2004). (Davic and Welsh Jr., 2004)

There are no known adverse effects of Plethodon nettingi on humans.

Cheat Mountain salamanders are federally listed as threatened. The main threat to P. nettingi is human-induced loss of habitat and degradation from mining, logging, recreational development, and road construction. Another limiting factor of Cheat Mountain Salamanders is competition with red-bellied salamanders (Plethodon cinereus). (Hammerson, 2009)