Phalacrocorax aristotelis
European shag

European shags are found throughout western Europe, from Iceland, the British Isles, Portugal, Gibraltar, and northern Africa east to Greece and north into the Ukraine and as far north as Norway. There are 3 recognized subspecies: P. a. aristotelis occurs from Iceland to Scandinavia and south to the Iberian Peninsula, P. a. desmarestii occurs in the central Mediterranean to the Black Sea, and P. a. riggenbachi occurs along the coast of North Africa. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

European shags are found along rocky, marine coastlines and islands and are never found very far from land or very far inland. Preferred foraging grounds are in clear, protected waters over sand or rocky substrates, such as in bays or coastal channels. They avoid fresh, brackish, or muddy water. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

European shags are from 65 to 80 cm in length and 90 to 105 cm in wingspan. They average 2 kg in mass. They have black plumage overall with greenish iridescent hues. They have black feet, legs, and bill, with bright yellow skin at the base of the bill and bright turquoise eyes. They have a small, single, black crest that develops in the breeding season, when they also develop their most intense green hues to the plumage. Non-breeding adults have duller plumage with a pale chin, mottled plumage on the throat, and the bill becomes yellowish. Juveniles are uniformly brown and have pale areas on the head and underparts. They are similar in appearance to great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo), but are overall smaller. (Arkive.org, 2009; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

Maximum lifespan is not reported for European shags, but studies demonstrate that most mortality occurs in the first year of life as a direct result of lower foraging efficiency. Other significant sources of mortality are accidental and intentional deaths through entanglement in fishing gear and persecution by humans. (del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

European shag populations do not migrate. Juveniles may disperse short distances after independence, up to 200 km, but adults tend to stay in the same general area for the remainder of their lives, only moving up to 100 km. Occasionally, strong storms blow European shags long distances inland, where they become stranded and often die. Birds generally return to their natal colonies to breed. They are social, breeding in large, dense colonies and foraging either alone or in large flocks during the day. (Arkive.org, 2009; BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

Home Range

Adult European shags generally do not travel more than 100 km and generally stay within a smaller area than that. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

European shags produce a variety of grunting and clicking vocalizations, which can be heard at the RSPB site. Other forms of communication are not well documented, but European shags may use visual displays in mating like other cormorants. (Arkive.org, 2009; Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, 2009)

European shags often forage alone, but will form large foraging flocks of several hundred when prey conditions allow. They eat almost exclusively small fish, although they will also eat crustaceans, cephalopods, and polychaete worms. Common fish prey include Gadidae, Clupeidae, Cottidae, Labridae, Ammodytes, and Trisopterus species. European shags don't hunt cooperatively and generally dive and pursue their prey under water. They perform a distinctive "leap" before diving into the water. European shags forage in deeper water and tend to eat different types of fish than great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo), with which they co-occur. (Arkive.org, 2009; BirdLife International 2008, 2008; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)

European shags are preyed on by introduced American mink (Neovison vison) at some nesting colonies. Other predators are not reported, but probably include coastal raptors, like white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla, and avian nest predators such as gulls or corvids. Their nesting habits on steep, rocky, coastal cliffs, prevent some predation. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

European shags are susceptible to Newcastle disease. They are important predators of small fish in their coastal habitats. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

European shags are persecuted because of the perception that they interfere with commercial or subsistence fishing, although they eat mainly small fish so are unlikely to compete directly with humans for prey. They may interfere at hatcheries. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

European shag eggs, young, and adults are sometimes taken from nests or hunted for food. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

European shags have a large range and population estimates are approximately 260,000 to 290,000 individuals. Large population declines have not been documented and they are considered "least concern" by the IUCN. They are often entangled and killed in fishing gear and nets or are intentionally killed by fishermen. They are vulnerable to the impacts of coastal pollution, such as oil spills. (BirdLife International 2008, 2008)

European shags are sometimes placed in the genus Stictocarbo. They are also known as common shags, green shags, or green cormorants. In French they are known as Cormoran huppé, in German they are called Krähenscharbe, and in Spanish they are called Cormorán Moñudo. The name "shag" comes from the Old Norse word "skegg" for "beard," possibly referring to the crest. (Arkive.org, 2009; del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargatal, 1992)