Pelecanus philippensis
spot-billed pelican

Pelecanus philippensis, also known as spot-billed pelicans, can only be found in Southeast Asia over a range of territory between 129,000 and 181,000 square kilometers. The largest remaining populations are in India, Sri Lanka, southern Cambodia, and Sumatra along coastal areas. Pelecanus philippensis has also historically been sighted in Java, Pakistan, Nepal, Turkey, Laos, China, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Breeding, however, is currently confined to Sri Lanka, parts of southeastern India, and Cambodia. (BirdLife International, 2004; Birdlife International, 2005; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993; Stattersfield and Capper, 2000)

Pelecanus philippensis lives in lowland freshwater, brackish, and marine wetland areas of Southeast Asia, mainly near open water. Spot-billed pelicans hunt for food in both freshwater and marine environments, sometimes diving slightly below the surface but never to any great depth. During the breeding season these pelicans require large trees for nesting with a preference for bare or dead trees. (BirdLife International, 2004; Johnsgard, 1993; Stattersfield and Capper, 2000)

Spot-billed pelicans are relatively small pelicans. Mature pre-breeding spot-billed pelicans are generally gray dorsally, blending to white ventrally with a fairly long brownish gray crest. The eye-ring and most facial skin is an orange-yellow color, though the skin in front of each eye is bright purple. The wings are grey with dark brown to black tips and dull white to slightly pink undersides. The bill is a pinkish to orange-yellow color with large bluish black spots or smears on the sides and a dull purple pouch that is also blotched with bluish black. Pelicans in general are easily identified in the field by their unique bill pouch, which can stretch while fishing to hold almost three gallons of water in the larger pelican species. Spot-billed pelicans also have fully-webbed feet and legs of very dark brown to black skin. After breeding season ends, mature spot-billed pelicans lose some of the brilliance in their facial coloring, becoming more dull. The crest also diminishes in size. When newly hatched, spot-billed pelican nestling are initially naked with light skin, quickly growing a white down layer. As juveniles they develop a brown color. Bill-spots begin to develop at approximately six months but are still indistinct until the molt into adult plumage begins in their third year. At this point, approximately 30 months of age, the identifying facial and bill marks become well defined. The change from brown juvenile to grey and white adult plumage is usually complete by autumn of the third year, just in time for the breeding season. Male spot-billed pelicans are slightly larger than females. The basal metabolic rate has not been investigated. (Del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargaral, 1992; Hoagstrom, 2002; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993)

Little reseach has been done on the lifespan of P. philippensis. Pelecanus occidentalis, the brown pelican, has been recorded to live up to 31 years in the wild and 29 in captivity. Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, the white pelican, has been recorded to live up to 34 years in captivity. (Terres, 1980)

Pelecanus philippensis is a social species, living and traveling mainly in flocks. Spot-billed pelicans are not graceful on land, but fly well and are strong swimmers. In flight, pelicans hold their heads back on their shoulders and rest their bills on their folded necks. They are powerful, generally only needing to beat their wings once or twice per second. To become airborne without the wind to help them, pelicans run over the water, flapping their wings and pounding the surface of the water with their feet to gain momentum. Pelicans frequently fly in regular lines or single file, but occasionally in a V formation as well. Pelicans are diurnal. at night they sleep with their heads twisted back and tucked in their feathers. All pelican species are careful groomers, splash bathing, preening with their beaks, and rubbing their heads over their bodies help to distribute waterproofing oil on their feathers. Other grooming activities include muscle exercises such as body shaking, wing flapping, tail wagging, leg stretching, bill throwing, and yawning. A large part of their time is spent preening or resting. Spot-billed pelicans have been recorded to frequently hunt alone, although also in larger groups. The throat pouch that pelicans use to capture fish is also used as a cooling mechanism. In hot weather pelicans will open their beaks, pulsating their pouch to increase the rate of evaporative cooling. (Del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargaral, 1992; Hoagstrom, 2002; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993; Terres, 1980)

Home Range

Spot-billed pelicans return to specific breeding grounds during breeding season. On the breeding grounds they are territorial, defending their nest from others. Outside of the breeding season spot-billed pelicans are nomadic, traveling widely in search of food. (Johnsgard, 1993; Terres, 1980)

Spot-billed pelicans are relatively quiet when mature, only calling rarely. As nestlings, however, they have been recorded uttering grunting contact calls, barking, squeaking, and bleating like sheep, making the breeding grounds a much noisier place. In the presence of a perceived threat, however, both young and adults will become silent. Loud noises and large wing movements may be used as scare tactics once a threat makes itself visable. During mating these pelicans use a number of different social signals, both vocal and visual, including bowing, head swaying, bill clapping, head turning, and various moaning, grunting, and high-pitched yipping noises. Mates also greet each other with neck stretching and a duet of groans. Other aspects of communication in spot-billed pelicans have not been studied. (Johnsgard, 1993; Terres, 1980)

Spot-billed pelicans are carnivorous and eat a diet of mainly fish, but which is sometimes supplemented by small reptiles, amphibians, and aquatic crustaceans. Spot-billed pelicans have an estimated requirement of 1000g of food daily. Pelicans use their unique beaks to fish, diving from above to skim the water or simply dipping their heads and necks below the water, collecting fish using their large, expandable bill-pouches. They then hold the fish in their pouches just long enough to squeeze out the water from the corners of their mouthes before swallowing their meals. (Del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargaral, 1992; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993)

Mature spot-billed pelicans have no predators, however crows, Brahminy kites, and jackals will quickly eat nestlings and fledglings and steal eggs, if they have the opportunity. (Johnsgard, 1993)

Spot-billed pelicans are predators of small to medium-sized fish, amphibians, and reptiles. Young pelicans may also be prey to crows, Brahminy kites, and jackals. There are no known mutualisms or commensalisms involving this species. (Del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargaral, 1992; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993)

There are no known adverse effects of P. philippensis on humans. (Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993)

Pelicans have been historically used as domestic birds in Egypt and as fishing helpers in India. Relatively slow and direct in flight, pelicans make easy birds to track, leading fishermen to fish-rich areas. Unlike many other birds, pelicans eat a number of fish that are not considered commercially valuable such as carp and silversides, and do not typically compete with commercial fishermen. As a vulnerable species, P. philippensis may also increase ecotourism to Southeast Asia. They are occasionally consumed in Cambodia and possibly other countries as well. (Birdlife International, 2005; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993; Stattersfield and Capper, 2000; Terres, 1980)

Spot-billed pelicans are classified by IUCN as a vulnerable species, with an estimated 7,500 – 10,000 individuals currently in existence. Several key breeding grounds are now in protected areas, particularly the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve in Cambodia. Others, such as the Sittang Valley breeding colony in Myanmar, have already been destroyed. Spot-billed pelicans suffer mainly from habitat loss due to deforestation, hunting, and pollution by organochlorine pesticides. Deforestation is particularly damaging because it affects their breeding grounds. Aquaculture and over-fishing by humans have also disturbed vital pelican habitats. Legislation, community action, research, habitat preservation, and habitat restoration are needed to help increase the long-term viability of spot-billed pelican populations. (BirdLife International, 2004; Birdlife International, 2005; Del Hoyo, Elliott, and Sargaral, 1992; Stattersfield and Capper, 2000)

Pelecanus philippensis is believed to be closely related to Pelecanus rufescens, pink-backed pelicans. Taxonomically, P. philippensis was actually considered conspecific with Pelecanus rufescens until the mid to late 1800s. It has also been frequently confused throughout history with Dalmatian pelicans, Pelecanus crispus, with which its territory overlaps. Pelecanus philippensis was first documented in 1789 by Gmelin in the Philippine Islands. Culturally, pelicans in general have been used as a figure of legend in Christianity, where they are said to represent maternal love, and in Islam, where they are said to have helped build the Kaaba in Mecca. (Hoagstrom, 2002; Hutchins et al., 2003; Johnsgard, 1993)