By Nancy Shefferly
Diversity
Papio can be divided into five species, as outlined by Groves (2001). Papio hamadryas (hamadryas baboons), P. anubis (anubis baboons), P. cynocephalus (yellow baboons), P. ursinus (chacma baboons), and P. papio (Guinea baboons). Some authorities continue to recognize only a single species, Papio hamadryas, which is composed of five subspecies corresponding to the species mentioned above. Species are parapatric, with hybridization often occurring in areas where populations abut. In overall physical appearance, all members of the genus are similar, with variation in coat color (olive, brown, black, yellow, red, gray), and hair length. A mane or ruff of fur may be prominent in males, and varies by species. Size varies by species and geographically, with males weighing from 20 to 31 kg, and females weighing from 10 to 15 kg. Baboons may live in large or small multi-male, multi-female troops, or single male harems. In all species, social behavior is complex and varied. Baboons can be found in a variety of habitat types, including grasslands, woodlands, semi-arid and arid savannas, steppes, alpine woodlands, sub-deserts, gallery forests, and rainforests. This genus is primarily frugivorous, although grasses, leaves, seeds and other plant material are consumed. Animal matter is eaten when available. (Groves, 2000; Groves, 2001; Kummer, 1968; Nowak, 1999; Oates, 1986; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Geographic Range
Papio is found in the Ethiopian region, with a mostly continuous distribution in sub-saharan Africa. Isolated populations occur in the north within the Saharan region. P. hamadryas occurs both in the Ethiopian region and in the Palearctic, along the Red Sea coast of Yemen and Saudi Arabia. The Palearctic populations of P. hamadryas have been present for the length of recorded history in the region, but are thought to have been introduced by humans, possibly though a shipwreck, or through importation of these "sacred" baboons sometime during the past 4000 years. (Jolly, 1993; Nowak, 1999; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Biogeographic Regions:
palearctic 
(introduced , native ); ethiopian (native ).
Habitat
Baboons inhabit a variety of habitats, including savannas, grasslands, scrublands, steppes, semi-arid woodlands, and sub-deserts, as well as gallery and rain forest areas. Key features of all baboon habitats include stable sources of water, and some type of elevated sleeping site. These sleeping sites are usually large trees or cliffs, where the baboons can spend their nights with reduced threat of predation. Rarely, if ever, have baboons been known to willingly sleep on the ground. (Kummer, 1968; Napier and Napier, 1985; Nowak, 1999; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
These animals are found in the following types of habitat:
temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial .
Terrestrial Biomes:
desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains .
Other:
urban ; agricultural .
Systematic and Taxonomic History
A complete history of the nomenclature of the genus Papio is given by Delson and Napier (1976, 1977). In summary, Papio was first used for baboons by Erxleben in 1777. However, the use of this name for mandrills by Müller, 1776, predates the use for baboons. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1982) has ruled in favor of suppressing Müller’s usage, and upholding the common usage of Papio for baboons. (Groves, 2001)
The five species of Papio recognized here are distinct physically, and represent reliably diagnosable units (Groves, 2001). They have been widely recognized historically, and much of the primary literature refers to these five species of baboons. Animal Diversity Web staff has therefore decided to recognize these five species. Doing so permits us to highlight diversity among these animals. It should be noted, however, that the genus Papio represents one of the most contested areas of primate taxonomy and nomenclature. Strong arguments, some of which are reviewed below, exist for alternative classifications of baboons. Because of the strength of these arguments, several nomenclatural systems are currently in use among primatologists. (Groves, 2001; Jolly and Whitehead, 2000; Jolly, 1993; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Baboons have been classified by Jolly (1993) as a single species (P. hamadryas). Jolly recognizes ten distinct subspecies, which he calls "forms" to avoid the baggage associated with application of taxonomic terms. These include the five forms listed here as species, as well as Kinda and Ibean baboons (which are here included with Papio cynocephalus), Heuglin’s baboons (which are here included with Papio anubis), and Transvaal and gray-footed baboons (which are here included with Papio ursinus). These forms differ in patterns of coloration, hair length and texture, tail shape, and skull size, as well as facial orientation and shape. Some forms have distinct social stuctures and habitat associations, whereas others seem more flexible in these variables. (Jolly, 1993)
Compelling arguments exist for this "single species" classification scheme. Because hybridization occurs in the wild between adjacent populations of the various forms, and many hybrids between non-adjacent forms have been produced in captivity, the various forms are potentially linked by continuous gene flow. In their work, Williams-Blangero, et al. (1990) concluded that, although there were significant genetic differences among baboon types, the variability present was consistent with the notion that the five commonly recognized forms are all members of the same polytypic species. (Jolly, 1993; Williams-Blangero et al., 1990)
Further support for the hypothesis that baboons represent a single species comes from the geographic distribution of phenotypic variation within the genus. Jolly (1993) documents that there is a single continuous series of neighboring populations stretching from north to south, in which differences occur in an orderly step-cline fashion. The characters typical of northern anubis baboons are gradually replaced by typical yellow baboon characters, and those, in turn, are replaced by typical chacma baboon characters. Jolly further documents other portions of this north-south clinal variation which lead to Kinda, Guinea, and hamadryas types. In virtually all cases, the most similar baboon populations are adjacent to one another. The only exception to this pattern exists between Guinea and hamadryas baboons, which seem most similar to one another, but are geographically separated by the extensive range of anubis baboons. (Jolly, 1993)
Many of the differences between various baboon forms are related to pelage. Because most variation in size is continuous, Jolly (1993) points out that from the perspective of paleontologists, who are restricted to viewing fossilized remains, the genus Papio would likely be divided into two species. The notably smaller-skulled Kinda baboon would appear distinct from the remaining forms, which would cluster together as a single species. The lack of consistent, recognizable differences in skeletal features among the remaining baboons, he argues, further illustrates the difficulty of breaking the genus into different species. (Jolly, 1993)
An alternative classification scheme used by some authors, following a suggestion by Thorington and Groves (1970), lumps all species except hamadryas baboons under a single species P. cynocephalus. This particular nomenclature has gained wide acceptance among socioecologists, probably because hamadryas baboons are the most distinctively different among the baboons ecologically and behaviorally. However, as Jolly (1993) points out, this is in many ways the least satisfying classification scheme, since hamadryas baboons have the best documented zone of hybridization with anubis baboons, and their morphological synapomorphies link them most closely to the other maned baboons, including Guinea baboons and anubis baboons. Hamadryas baboons would therefore seem to be the least amenable to separation as a distinct species of all the baboon forms based on morphology and zygostructure (Jolly, 1993). (Jolly, 1993; Thorington and Groves, 1970)
The debate over baboon taxonomy and nomenclature relates not to faulty recognition of morphological, social, and ecological diversity within the genus, but to application of different species concepts by various authorities, combined with different values assigned to particular species characteristics, and differing ideas about speciation processes. Regardless of how one views the genus taxonomically, most authors readily admit that Papio represents an example of the difficulty inherent in applying a system of discrete classification to a somewhat continuous phenomenon. (Eldredge, 1993; Groves, 2001; Jolly, 1993; Masters, 1993)
The diversity of species on earth at any one time is merely a status report on the ongoing process of evolutionary change. Even events which appear rapid in geological time cannot be directly observed during our lifetimes. Most biologists agree that in the process of speciation, populations become reproductively isolated. At some point during the process of divergence leading to speciation, these populations can come back together. If enough time has passed, and enough changes have occurred in one or both of the populations, the organisms in questions will be morphologically distinct, and will not be capable of interbreeding However, many deviations from this scenario can occur in nature. In some cases, populations may not have diverged significantly in their morphology, but may have developed different cues for recognizing potential mates, leading to effective reproductive isolation of the populations (e.g.: morphocryptic species). In other cases, populations may have diverged morphologically or behaviorally, but may still interbreed. (Eldredge, 1993; Jolly, 1993; Masters, 1993; Mayr, 1942; Szalay, 1993)
Incompletely divergent populations have an uncertain future when they come back into contact with one another. Genetic flow between the populations may eradicate their differences in time. It is also possible that hybrid individuals may be at some disadvantage relative to either population "type," restricting gene flow, and allowing the populations to maintain their distinct characteristics. Hybridization under such conditions may not be favored by natural selection, or it may continue in isolated cases. (Eldredge, 1993; Mayr, 1942)
Such populations represent a single frame in the movie of speciation, and as such can be confusing. Because we cannot see into the future, it is difficult to know if these populations are the beginning point of new species, the end point of old species, or if they may eventually come back together in what would unquestionably represent a single species. As Eldredge (1993) so eloquently put it, "It is nature, not my own vacillation, nor the collective inability of biologists over the ages to agree, that lies at the roots of our difficulties in deciding what species actually are." Nowhere is this more evident than in the genus Papio. (Eldredge, 1993)
- Cynocephalus
- Chaeropithecus
- Choeropithecus
- Hamadryas
- Choiropithecus
- Comopithecus
Physical Description
Papio baboons are large members of the family Cercopithicidae, with weights ranging between 10 and 31 kg. Females of all species are about the same size (around 10 to 15 kg) but males are significantly larger. The greatest sexual dimorphism in size occurs within hamadryas and chacma baboon populatons. (Harvey, Martin, and Clutton-Brock, 1986; Napier and Napier, 1985; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
The fur ranges in color from yellow to reddish, and from olive-gray to black. Young animals are always distinctly colored, usually having black fur, but in some species brown or brownish-red pelage characterizes young. Males may have a prominent mane. The face is nearly bare, and the palms and soles of the feet are completely so.
The long face has a conspicuous muzzle. The dental formula is (i 2/2, c 1/1, pm 2/2, m 3/3) x 2 = 32. The lower incisors tend to be oriented straight upward, and come into contact with the canines, whereas the upper incisors are packed tightly together, and separated from the canines by a large diastema. The upper canines are long, a feature which is extremely prominent in males. (Groves, 2001; Jolly, 1993; Napier and Napier, 1985; Nowak, 1999)
Baboons have large ischial callosities, which are fused along the midline in males, but separated by the genitals in females. The skin surrounding these callosities tends to be furless and is either red or black, depending upon species. During mid-cycle, the ano-genital skin of females is swollen, and during pregnancy it reddens, making the rump even more conspicuous. (Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Napier and Napier, 1985)
Locomotion is quadrupedal, and appears to be somewhat stiff-legged in most species. The weight is born on the front extremities by the fingers (digitigrade), but the weight is born by the hind feet across the entire sole of the foot (plantigrade). The thumb is relatively long, allowing precision grip and manipulation of objects. The tail is held in an arch, with the particular shape of the arch varying between species. (Napier and Napier, 1985)
Some key physical features:
endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry .
Sexual dimorphism: male larger, sexes colored or patterned differently, male more colorful, ornamentation .
Reproduction
Reproduction and mating systems of the genus Papio fall into two primary types. The first is polygynadrous or promiscuous mating in multi-male, multi-female troops, found in all species except P. hamadryas. The second is mating within single male social units, typically found in P. hamadryas but occasionally reported for P. anubis, P. cynocephalus, and P. ursinus. (Hrdy and Whitten, 1986; Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Nowak, 1999; Smuts, 1986a; Stammbach, 1986; Walters, 1986)
Within multi-female, multi-male troops, females attract males during a prolonged estrus period through the swelling of their prominently colored ano-genital area. Estrus swellings typically last for many days, during which males may actively compete for access to the female. Papio anubis females are reported to have receptivity of 15 to 20 day during the middle portion of their estrous cycles. Papio ursinus females are receptive throughout their cycle, but copulations peak during the mid portion of the cycle. (Walters, 1986)
Olfactory cues may be present to signal female reproductive receptivity. Papio anubis females produce aliphatic acids, enhance their attractiveness to potential mates. (Walters, 1986)
Certain males, usually mid- to high-ranking older males, are capable of forming stable consortships with females through exclusion of competitors. Younger males often attempt to "steal" females away from older males, but such older males may form coalitions to prevent this. Regardless, the success of a male in copulating with a female is often related to his long-standing relationship with her. Females are more cooperative toward males with whom they frequently associate in a friendly manner during the times when they are not in estrus. Such males will often support a female in her conflicts with other females or males, and will support the female’s offspring in peer conflicts. These males are also more likely to share food with the offspring of their "close" female friends. (Smuts, 1986a; Stein, 1984)
The initiation of copulation follows a somewhat ritualized pattern in baboon species. A female typically presents her hindquarters to a male to signal that she is sexually receptive. Chacma baboon females also raise their eyebrows and flatten their ears while looking at males (Walters, 1987). Males may initiate a copulation by lip-smacking, making a friendly face, or gently shoving a female to entice her to stand. Copulation proceeds in either a single mount (e.g. P. anubis) or a series of mounts (e.g. P. ursinus, P. hamadryas). Information on mating frequencies is spotty, but is known to occur from 1 to 6 times per hour for cycling female yellow baboons, and from 7 to 14 times per hour for cycling female hamadryas baboons. Pregnant females, who generally exhibit a reddening of the perineal skin, do not copulate. (Hrdy and Whitten, 1986; Walters, 1986)
In contrast to the competition for access to females in other baboons, there is little overt competition of this nature in hamadryas baboons. A single male establishs a "harem" of females, which he guards from other males at all times, not just during their estrus periods. Males actively herd their females, keeping the social unit together during foraging. Males actively suppress aggression between females. Although sometimes these one-male units may have another male who acts as a "follower," rarely does the follower male interact with females. (Hamilton III and Bulger, 1992; Kummer, 1968)
In some cases, one-male units are found in other species of baboons, apparently usually a result of demographic stochasticity. When they occur, the male typically engages himself much more strongly in controlling the movements of group females, and intervenes more frequently and to greater effect in the conflicts which arise between females. (Hamilton III and Bulger, 1992)
There are two mechanisms by which hamadryas males typically attract mates. The first is by abducting a young female from her mother. The male cares for the female, grooms her, and carries her if need be, until she reaches maturity, at which time he will mate with her. Females, who typically transfer out of their natal group upon reaching maturity, are generally attracted to males who already have a female, so kidnapping is an effective strategy for males to begin their family unit. The second strategy males adopt is to take-over an existing harem through direct aggression with and displacement of the tenured male. This strategy is complicated by the complex social relationships between males, who may intervene to support brothers, cousins, uncles or fathers in such conflicts. (Smuts, 1986a; Stammbach, 1986)
An interesting correlate of these different mating systems is the schedule of testicular development in young males (Jolly and Phillips-Conroy, 2003). In P. anubis testes continue to grow through the adolescent period until full adult body size is attained, whereas in P. hamadryas testicular growth and development ends when the male is still a sub-adult. This results in distinctly smaller testes in hamadryas baboons than in anubis baboons, as would be predicted by models of sperm competition theory. (Jolly and Phillips-Conroy, 2003)
Another potential correlate of mating systems is the presence of series mounting during copulation, as opposed to single mounting. It is interesting to note that one-male units are most commonly reported for chacma baboons, and like hamadryas baboons, this species exhibits serial mounting during mating. Species where one-male units are less common are not reported to be serial mounters. (Hamilton III and Bulger, 1992; Walters, 1986)
Mating systems:
polygynous ; polygynandrous (promiscuous) .
Most members of the genus Papio breed throughout the year, although some populations may breed seasonally. The female cycle length is from 30 to 40 days, and varies by species, age, reproductive history of the female, social situation, and ecological variables. Information on gestation length is spotty. Gestation lasts approximately 180 days in P. anubis, 161 to 175 days in P. cynocephalus, 172 days in P. hamadryas, 187 days in P. ursinus. (Bentley-Condit and Smith, 1997; Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Napier and Napier, 1985)
In most species and populations, there is a birth peak. The timing of this peak varies, but is usually the end of the dry season or beginning of the rainy season. Lactation occurs until 6 to 15 months of age, varying by species, timing of birth, availability of weaning foods, maternal rank, and other variables (Harvey et al., 1987; Bentley-Condit, 1997; Rhine et al, 1988). Young typically weigh approximately 600 to 900 g at birth for P. hamadryas, 1068 g for P. anubis, and 854 g for P. cynocephalus. Newborns have a distinctly colored coat (black, brown or reddish-brown), which they maintain until they are approximately weaning age, when they molt into a fur more typical of adults of the species. (Bentley-Condit and Smith, 1997; Harvey, Martin, and Clutton-Brock, 1986; Jolly, 1993; Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Rhine, Wasser, and Norton, 1988)
With the genus Papio, the interval between births ranges from 12 to 34 months. It is not known whether differences reported in interbirth intervals are due to genetic differences between populations as well as species, or ecological and social differences. (Melnick and Pearl, 1986)
Females may reach menarche between 3 and 6 years of age. This may occur before adult teeth have fully erupted, and before adult body size is attained. Males reach puberty at 4 to 6 years of age. Testicles may mature prior to attainment of adult body size full eruption of canines, as is the case for P. hamadryas, or they may continue to grow until the adult body size is attained, as in P. anubis. (Harvey, Martin, and Clutton-Brock, 1986; Jolly and Phillips-Conroy, 2003)
Key reproductive features:
iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; viviparous .
Parental care is provided primarily by mothers. Females nurse their young, carry them, groom them, and support them in agonistic encounters with their peers. Infants sleep in contact with their mothers until they are close to a year of age. (Altmann, 1980a)
Females other than the mother may attempt to groom or hold newly born infants, and in some cases have been known to kidnap newborns from their mothers. If the infant is not returned promptly to nurse, it could die. This type of behavior therefore, has been interpreted as harassment, rather than as alloparenting. (Altmann, 1980a; Bentley-Condit, Moore, and Smith, 2001)
There are interesting patterns of interaction between males and infants, which are sometimes interpreted as parental care. Males will typically use an infant as a buffer against aggression from other males, clinging to an infant if an attack by another male appears imminent. This appears to work because the mother, and her female kin, will become involved in the conflict if the male holding the infant is actually attacked. A potentially attacking male apparently thinks twice about instigating aggression when it might stir up resentment among the females. (Stein, 1984)
Males often have a special relationship with the infants they use in such a fashion. Males groom, carry, and share meat with these infants. They also sometimes intervene in agonistic encounters between the infant and its peers. If a mother happens to die, males have been known to care for orphans whom they have used as agonistic buffers, providing some of the essential functions that the mother normally would. (Stein, 1984)
This behavior may indeed be paternal, since infants typically allow themselves to be used as buffers only by those males who associate closely with their mothers. Since close male associates of a female have greater chances of fathering her offspring, the additional care that the male gives to his "buffer" infants may be going to his likely offspring. (Smuts, 1986a; Stein, 1984; Whitten, 1986)
Parental investment:
altricial ; pre-fertilization (provisioning, protecting: female); pre-hatching/birth (provisioning: female, protecting: female); pre-weaning/fledging (provisioning: female, protecting: male, female); pre-independence (protecting: male, female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; inherits maternal/paternal territory; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young.
Lifespan/Longevity
Members of the genus Papio have been reported to live for up to 45 years in captivity. Lifespans of wild animals are more difficult to assess, since even long-term studies of these animals in the wild cannot provide accurate information on the age of animals who immigrate into a community, nor can they track the eventual fate of those animals who emigrate from a community. However, the maximum lifespan in wild populations is probably 30 to 40 years. (Harvey, Martin, and Clutton-Brock, 1986; Napier and Napier, 1985)
Behavior
Members of the genus Papio all share certain general patterns of behavior which are recounted here. These animals are motile, ranging several kilometers in any one day to find food (Melnick and Pearle, 1987). Social groups always return to one of a limited set of sleeping sites (cliffs or trees) at night to bed down. Patterns of interaction at sleeping sites reflect general patterns of affiliation, and tend to be stable through time. (Bentley-Condit and Smith, 1999; Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Smuts, 1986a; Smuts, 1986b)
In all species except P. hamadryas, the most common social organization is multi-male, multi-female troops. Females are philopatric. There is a stable dominance hierarchy of different matrilines, and in general, a female will have a place in the dominance hierarchy just below her mother. For sisters, dominance is inversely related to birth order. Females can sometimes rise in rank above their mothers where geneologies are small. The acquisition of dominance rank in baboons is due partly to the activities of the mother, who forces subordinates to accept and respect her daughter as dominant to them. (Bentley-Condit and Smith, 1999; Walters and Seyfarth, 1986)
Female relationships within P. hamadryas are less well studied. There does not appear to be a clear-cut pecking order among females in hamadryas baboons, partly because females transfer out of their natal social group. However, females apparently continue to have affiliative relationships with other females, possibly kin, despite their migration into different social groups. (Swedell, 2002)
Within the non-hamadryas baboons, males compete actively for access to females, and have a strong dominance hierarchy themselves. Male dominance is correlated with factors such as age, size and ability to fight, rather than maternal dominance rank. Because males leave their natal troops, they are "free" of inherited dominance relationships. Although any individual adult male is dominant to an individual adult female, interactions between males and females are heavily influenced by coalitions of female kin. Males immigrate into new social groups when they reach adulthood. Their success in these groups can be related to how the females within the group respond to them. (Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Smuts, 1986a)
In hamadryas baboons, there is a complex, four-tiered social system in which males affiliate with their male kin. The basic social unit is comprised of an adult male and his females. Within this group, the strongest social bonds are those between the adult male and any adult female. The male actively suppresses aggression between females, and forces them to maintain proximity to him during daily travel. The animals in these one male units sleep together at night. (Kummer, 1968; Stammbach, 1986; Zinner, Pelaez, and Torkler, 2001)
Each hamadryas one male unit is closely affiliated with a clan, band, and troop. Clans and bands are comprised of male kin, and males within them appear to cooperate socially. Troops, on the other hand, appear mainly to share sleeping sites, and only sleeping sites. (Kummer, 1968)
Key behaviors:
terricolous; diurnal ; motile ; sedentary ; social ; dominance hierarchies .
Communication and Perception
Communication between baboons is complex, as would be expected for highly social animals. Baboons are very vocal, and although calls of all species are similar, they may be used in slightly different contexts in each species. Also, different species may produce the same basic vocalizations, yet with slightly different acoustic qualities. Vocalizations reported for Papio include barks, grunts, roars, screeches, yakking, clicking, and ick-ooers. Tactile communication includes a great deal of grooming, as well as social mounting (a form of reassurance), and nose-to-nose contact. Gestures and facial expressions, such as friendly faces and lip-smacking, also play a large role in communication. Some threats are communicated via facial expression or gestures. Olfactory communication may be present, as females are reported to have enhanced attractiveness to males when they are producing aliphatic acids. (Hrdy and Whitten, 1986; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c; Walters, 1986)
Social dominance is very important in all baboon species. Human observers calculate the dominance rank of individuals by monitoring the outcome of one-on-one aggressive interactions, and looking at the tendency of one animal to supplant, or displace, another animal. It is likely that there are other cues which communicate dominance between the animals themselves. (Rhine et al., 1992; Sapolsky and Ray, 1989)
Food Habits
Although generally described as frugivorous, baboons will eat just about anything edible, including grasses, forbes, leaves, buds, flowers, seeds, eggs, insects, and meat. All baboons share the unique ability to subsist solely on grasses and forbes, which allows them to exploit savanna habitats not frequented by other monkeys. (Kummer, 1968; Napier and Napier, 1985; Oates, 1986; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Primary Diet:
omnivore .
Predation
- lions (Panthera leo)
- chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
- Verreaux's eagles (Aquila verreauxi)
- leopards (Panthera pardus)
Baboons are thought to fall prey to several large African predators. Annual rates of predation have been estimated at 1 to 9% of the population for various species and populations.
Some of the predators reported attempting to kill and eat baboons include lions, leopards, and Verreaux’s eagles. Chimpanzees also occasionally hunt baboons. (Cheyney and Wrangham, 1986; Zinner and Pelaez, 1999)
As in many animals, it is often the young who are the most threatened by predators. General patterns of survivorship in baboon infants are correlated indirectly with predation. Certain weather patterns may allow grasses to grow too tall or thick, allowing predators to surprise unwary young. (Cheyney and Wrangham, 1986; Kummer, 1968; Rhine, Wasser, and Norton, 1988)
The genus Papio is known to exhibit several antipredator behaviors. In all species, males may chase members of their social group who have straggled away, bringing them back into the fold, so to speak. Baboons will mob leopards, and have been known to use their tremendous canine teeth to inflict severe damage upon these would-be assailants. (Cheyney and Wrangham, 1986; Melnick and Pearl, 1986; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Reports regarding the spatial patterning of animals during troop movements vary. Some authors indicate that males tend to take the lead to protect the rest of the group for potential predators, but other authors assert that there is no consistent organization of individuals during movement. (Cheyney and Wrangham, 1986; Rhine and Tilson, 1987)
Ecosystem Roles
Baboons play several important roles in their ecosystems. Because of their frugivorous tendencies, they disperse seeds. They pull forbs to eat their bulbs and eat tubers, contributing to soil aeration. As prey items, they are likely important to several predator species, depending upon the importance of these primates in the diets of the predators. (Cheyney and Wrangham, 1986; Nowak, 1999; Primate Info Net, 2000a; Primate Info Net, 2000b; Primate Info Net, 2002a; Primate Info Net, 2002b; Primate Info Net, 2002c)
Key ways these animals impact their ecosystem:
disperses seeds; soil aeration .
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Baboons are often considered pests. They are known to raid crops in Africa (Strum, 1991)
Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans:
crop pest.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Baboons are large, active animals. They are therefore of interest to ecotourists. In Saudi Arabia, some local people feed hamadryas baboons, and some populations are reported to feed off garbage found in dumps. Baboons are heavily used in biomedical research. IUCN reports that some baboons are harvested as food by native populations. (Nowak, 1999; Williams-Blangero et al., 1990)
Ways that people benefit from these animals:
food ; ecotourism ; research and education.
Conservation
CITES lists all baboon species in Appendix II, so international trade in the animals or their parts is in theory regulated by governments.
The IUCN Redlist lists P. hamadryas and P. papio as "Lower Risk/near threatened," with major threats to baboons being habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, havesting for food and for scientific purposes, as well as continued persecution by indigenous people. Other Papio species are listed as "Lower Risk/least concern," indicating the species are not considered at risk at this time.
Contributors
Nancy Shefferly (author), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
George Hammond (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
