Muntiacus crinifrons
black muntjac

The documented geographic range of Muntiacus crinifrons includes the Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang provinces of eastern China as well as within the Hkakabo Razi National Park of northern Myanmar. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) suggested that the range of M. crinifrons formerly extended from the mouth of the Yangtze River, through the southeastern provinces that border the South China Sea, and into Yunnan province. Fragmentation of the former distribution of M. crinifrons may have been caused by deforestation for logging and agricultural purposes. (Groves and Grubb, 1990; Lu and Sheng, 1984; Ohtaishi and Gao, 1990; Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998; Rabinowitz, Amato, and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998; Sheng and Lu, 1980)

Muntiacus crinifrons inhabits hilly, often precipitous, mountain forests between 800-1000 m above sea level. These forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoonal conditions. (Groves and Grubb, 1990; Lu and Sheng, 1984; Sheng and Lu, 1980)

One of the larger species of the genus Muntiacus, M. crinifrons can have a body mass as large as 28.5 kg, with females, on average, larger than males (24.1 kg and 23.1 kg, respectively). The pelage is mostly black to dark brown in color. The thick and long frontal tuft above and between the eyes is cinnamon red in color and often hides the long pedicles of the antlers. The tail is notably longer than in other species of Muntiacus (~21 cm) and is thickly tufted with white fur that extends onto the inner thighs. The ventral side is only slightly lighter in color compared to the dorsal side. During winter, the coat is much thicker and darker, but becomes thinner and lighter in color during the summer. Muntiacus crinifrons fawns have a coat similar to that seen in adults, except for the addition of four dorsal, subparallel, white spots. (Groves and Grubb, 1990; Sheng and Lu, 1980)

Like other members of the subfamily Cervinae, M. crinifrons retain enamel-covered upper canines, which are elongated into tusks in males. In M. crinifrons, only males bear short (20-60 cm), single-branched antlers on long, hair-covered pedicles (8-10 cm) that extend from the frontal bone. Annual shedding of the antlers is presumed to occur by many authors. However, Groves and Grubb (1990) raise the possibility that the antlers are not always shed, because of observed similarities in antler size and morphology between M. crinifrons and M. atherodes, a species in which the frontal cavity extends into the pedicle preventing the development of a burr. (Geist, 1998; Groves and Grubb, 1990; Nowak, 1999)

The lifespan of Muntiacus crinifrons is not well known. Lu and Sheng (1984) report capturing a pregnant female of 11 years in age. This implies that M. crinifrons may have a lifespan similar to the 10-12 year lifespan estimated for Muntiacus reevesi. (Dueling and Myers, 2004; Lu and Sheng, 1984)

Muntiacus crinifrons is a solitary and territorial deer, inhabiting altitudes from 800 to 1000 m in subtropical mountainous forests. Secretions from the frontal and pre-orbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male M. crinifrons is invaded, he aggressively defends it, using the tusk-like upper canines to deliver damaging blows to the invader. Although other deer are found at similar altitudes and habitats in southern China, M. crinifrons do not share their territories with any other deer species, implying aggressive interspecific territorial defense. (Geist, 1998; Lu and Sheng, 1984; Nowak, 1999)

The pedicles and antlers of Muntiacus crinifrons are thought to be used to engage opponents head-on in order to secure the opponent's head and avoid injuries from his tusks. However, the small size of the pedicles and antlers relative to body size imply that very little sparring occurs between males, suggesting lack of a social hierarchy among males. This contrasts with the social structure of larger-antlered Muntiacus species in which dominant males may tolerate subordinate males along peripheries of their territories. The lack of a social structure in M. crinifrons males is further supported by the smaller size of the males compared to the females, because small size is advantageous in fighting (i.e. increased agility) and disadvantageous in sparring and dominance displays. (Geist, 1998; Nowak, 1999)

In antagonistic encounters or during times of increased anxiety, M. crinifrons produces a deep, barking sound and raises it long tail, exposing the bright, white fur underneath. In addition, the fur of the distinctive red frontal tuft is raised. These behaviors may be used by M. crinifrons to inform predators or opponents that they have been detected. (Dueling and Myers, 2004; Geist, 1998; Nowak, 1999)

Home Range

The home range of M. crinifrons has not been well documented. M. reevesi males introduced to England have been reported to have home ranges of ~20 ha while females have smaller ranges of ~12 ha. (Nowak, 1999)

As mentioned above, M. crinifrons scent marks with secretions from frontal and preorbital glands to demarcate territorial boundaries. Such scent marks may also indicate reproductive status. Visual cues, such as a raised frontal tuft or exposed white fur of the upturned tail, as well as barking, convey anxiety and may inform a predator or opponent that it has been spotted. Studies of reproductive behavior in Muntiacus reevesi report that males use low postures and "buzzing" noises during courtship, but such behavior in M. crinifrons has not been documented. (Dueling and Myers, 2004; Geist, 1998; Nowak, 1999)

Some species of Muntiacus have been described as omnivorous. However, a study of the rumen contents of Muntiacus crinifrons showed that the diet consists of leaves, twigs, and fruit without any animal matter. The contents included woody shrubs and vines, fallen fruit, herbs and grasses, conifers, and bamboo leaves, in order of decreasing abundance. (Lu and Sheng, 1984)

The main predators of Muntiacus crinifrons are humans and dholes. Leopards are also suspected to prey upon M. crinifrons, but cases of leopard predation have not been documented. Muntiacus crinifrons uses visual and sound cues (as described above) to inform a predator that it has been detected in order to dissuade the predator from attacking. Other species of Muntiacus quickly flee predators down well-maintained trails and hide in the dense undergrowth until the danger has passed. A similar behavior is expected of M. crinifrons. (Dueling and Myers, 2004; Geist, 1998; Lu and Sheng, 1984; Nowak, 1999)

Muntiacus crinifrons is expected to be an ecological specialist due to its preference for a specific range of altitudes (800-1000 m). This is further supported by the exclusion of other deer species, who occupy similar habitats and altitudes elsewhere in China, from their ranges. Since this species has been found to eat fallen fruit, Muntiacus crinifrons may be important in seed dispersal. Beyond this, little is known about the ecological role of Muntiacus crinifrons. (Geist, 1998; Lu and Sheng, 1984)

Muntiacus crinifrons inhabits mountainous areas with little or no human populations and have no negative impact on human economies. (Lu and Sheng, 1984; Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998; Rabinowitz, Amato, and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998; Sheng and Lu, 1980)

In both China and Myanmar Muntiacus crinifrons is hunted and trapped for its meat and skin. Local people in Myanmar sell the skins and antlers to Chinese traders for essential items and amenities. (Lu and Sheng, 1984; Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998; Rabinowitz, Amato, and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998; Sheng and Lu, 1980)

The geographic range of Muntiacus crinifrons is presumed to have been much more extensive is southeast Asia in the past, but has recently been fragmented due to habitat loss. In China, habitat loss has been attributed to overexploitation of mountain forests for timber as well as forest clearing for agriculture and infrastructure development. Overhunting may also play a role in the declining numbers of M. crinifrons. (Lu and Sheng, 1984; Nowak, 1999; Ohtaishi and Gao, 1990; Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998; Rabinowitz, Amato, and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998)

During the early 1980's, the estimated population size of Muntiacus crinifrons in China was ~ 10,000 individuals. However, a 1989 estimate lowered the population size to between 5000-6000 individuals. The discovery of Muntiacus crinifrons in Myanmar suggests that the total population size may be closer to 12,000 individuals. (Lu and Sheng, 1984; Ohtaishi and Gao, 1990; Rabinowitz and Khaing, 1998; Rabinowitz, Amato, and Saw Tun Khaing, 1998; Sheng and Lu, 1980)