By Ashley Boehmke
Geographic Range
Macropus parma, commonly known as Parma wallabies and white-throated wallabies, is native to the Great Dividing Range between the Gibraltar Range and the Watagan Mountains, in Eastern Australia. Within Australia, this species is restricted to New South Wales. They were introduced to Kawau Island, New Zealand in 1965. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Maynes, 1995; Ride, 1970)
Biogeographic Regions:
australian 
(native ).
Habitat
(2952 ft; avg. 984 ft)
Macropus parma is found in the Great Dividing Range between elevations of 0 to 900 m. Habitats occupied are wet, sclerophyll forests with thick undergrowth and grassy openings. Parma wallabies are also occasionally found in dry, eucalypt forests and in other, wet, tropical habitats. ("Great Dividing Range", 2005; "Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Campbell and Reece, 2002)
These animals are found in the following types of habitat:
temperate ; terrestrial .
Terrestrial Biomes:
forest .
Physical Description
(7.04 to 12.98 lbs)
(33.54 to 42.2 in)
Parma wallabies have a white throat and chest and a white stripe on the cheeks. The gray-brown back and shoulders, with a dark dorsal stripe extending to mid-back, are also defining features. Males are generally larger. Males usually measure 482 to 528 mm, while females range from 447 to 527 mm. Tail length in males is from 489 to 544 mm, and in females tail length is from 405 to 507 mm. Males weigh from 4.1 to 5.9 kg and females weigh from 3.2 to 4.8 kg. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Hume, 1999; Marlow, 1965; Maynes, 1995)
Some key physical features:
endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry .
Sexual dimorphism: male larger.
Reproduction
Parma wallabies breed twice yearly.
Parma wallabies breed between March and July.
Parma wallabies are generally promiscuous and there is no evidence of mate guarding. Courtship behavior generally begins with sexual confirmation by the male pawing the female’s buttocks. Mounting and copulation follow. Usually, prior to copulation, a male will place the female’s head upon his chest using his forepaws. During these interactions, there are characteristic vocalizations by the male that serve to rouse the female, and hisses by the females that function in warning. There is also evidence that production of olfactory and auditory signals factor into female mate choice. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Ord, Cooper, and Evans, 1989)
Mating systems:
polygynandrous (promiscuous) .
Parma wallabies breed between March and July, producing one offspring per breeding season. The gestation period is around 35 days. The newborn will remain in the mother’s pouch. Although, after 30 weeks it will be mature enough to leave the pouch, the young will continue to nurse for 10 months. Females reach sexual maturity around 16 months, while males reach maturity between 20-24 months. Starting at sexual maturity, female wallabies are in estrus one day every 30 days. Two days after giving birth there is a post-partum estrous. The newly fertilized embryo develops to the blastocyst stage and then stops (a phenomenon called embryonic diapause). This blastocyst will begin to develop again after the already conceived joey is able to leave the pouch, at around 30 weeks old. At this point the joey is called a “joey-at-heel”. This “joey-at-heel” is still able to put its head inside the pouch to nurse, even after the other offspring has been born and is attached to a nipple in the pouch. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Maynes, 1995)
Key reproductive features:
iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous ; embryonic diapause ; post-partum estrous.
Prior to birth, females will clean their pouch by scrupulously licking it. During birth female wallabies remain still, with their tails tucked between their legs, until the offspring has safely attached to the female teat, within the pouch. After the joey-at-heel leaves the pouch, the mother is able to produce two different types of milk with different, appropriate nutrient levels corresponding with each offspring’s developmental needs. After 44 weeks the joey is completely independent of the female parent. Since Parma wallabies are solitary creatures, the only interactions between males and females are for mating. Males do not assist in caring for young. (Broleman, 2002; Maynes, 1995)
Parental investment:
altricial ; pre-fertilization (provisioning, protecting: female); pre-hatching/birth (provisioning: female, protecting: female); pre-weaning/fledging (provisioning: female, protecting: female); pre-independence (provisioning: female, protecting: female).
Lifespan/Longevity
In the wild, the expected lifespan of M. parma is 6 to 8 years. In captivity, their expected lifespan is 11 to 15 years. ("Parma Wallaby: Macropus parma", 2002)
Behavior
Generally, M. parma are widely dispersed throughout their habitat, and solitary. There is very little social organization; different ages and genders interact equally and there is no protection of feeding ranges. Parma wallabies are nocturnal, although some crepuscular activity has been observed. Parma wallabies are saltatorial; therefore, their hind legs are very well developed and powerful. At slow speeds, M. parma individuals will use their tail as a fifth leg for locomotion and balance. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Maynes, 1995)
Home Range
Little research has been done on home ranges in M. parma. Ranges overlap among individuals and there is little interspecific aggression.
Key behaviors:
terricolous; saltatorial ; nocturnal ; crepuscular ; motile ; sedentary ; solitary .
Communication and Perception
Parma wallabies communicate visually, by quivering, tail wagging, and foot stomping as signs of agression. They perceive chemical signs, particularly scent as communication during mating. Parma wallabies also communicate with mates acoustically by clucking, coughing, and hissing as a sign of agression. (Coulson, 1989)
Food Habits
Parma wallabies are herbivores that feed primarily on reedy grasses and herbaceous plant parts. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Maynes, 1995)
Plant Foods:
leaves; wood, bark, or stems.
Predation
- dingos (Canis lupus dingo)
- red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
- humans (Homo sapiens)
Predators include Canis lupus dingo, Vulpes vulpes, and humans, all introduced species in Australia. Native predators are likely to be large snakes and birds of prey, which would prey on young joeys. Parma wallabies have cryptic coloration, which allows them to blend in with reedy grasses in their environment. Their large size as adults would protect them from most native predators. (Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2005)
Anti-predator adaptations::
cryptic .
Ecosystem Roles
Dingos (Canis lupus dingo), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and humans all use M. parma as prey. Also, M. parma is a small grazer and therefore acts as a predator towards small shrubs and plants in its environment. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Marlow, 1965; Maynes, 1995)
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Macropus parma is considered a nuisance to forestry on Kawau Island, where they were introduced. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003)
Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans:
crop pest.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
While many kangaroos and wallabies are hunted for meat and fur, Parma wallabies are rare and not frequently hunted. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2005)
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: [link]:
Lower Risk - Near Threatened.
US Federal List: [link]:
Endangered.
CITES: [link]:
No special status.
Macropus parma is considered near threatened/low risk by most sources. The IUCN lists the species as low risk. However, the Department of Environment and Conservation in New South Wales, acknowledges the species as being near threatened because population numbers are low and because of their restricted range. This species was once thought to be extinct as a result of hunting, however individuals were rediscovered in 1965 on Kawau Island and then in 1967 on the Australian mainland. ("Wallabies and kangaroos", 2003; Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), 2005)
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.
Ashley Boehmke (author), Kalamazoo College. Ann Fraser (editor, instructor), Kalamazoo College.
