By Erin Lane
Geographic Range
White cockatoos are found in the North Moluccas of the Maluku province of Indonesia. They occur naturally on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Kasiruta, Tidore, and Mandioli. White cockatoos have been found on the island of Obi and its satellite Bisa, but they are believed to have been introduced to the area as escaped captive populations. (BirdLife International, 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998)
Biogeographic Regions:
australian 
(introduced , native ).
Other Geographic Terms:
island endemic .
Habitat
(984 to 2952 ft; avg. 1640 ft)
White cockatoos occupy wooded areas. They are found in forests and open woodland, mangroves, swamps, agricultural areas and are particularly common around the edge of clearings and rivers. They spend most of their time in the tree canopy. It has been suggested that tall secondary vegetation is their preferred habitat. They are found at elevations of 300 to 900 m. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; BirdLife International, 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998)
These animals are found in the following types of habitat:
tropical ; terrestrial .
Terrestrial Biomes:
forest ; rainforest .
Wetlands: swamp .
Other:
agricultural ; riparian .
Physical Description
(17.6 to 22.18 oz; avg. 19.89 oz)
(18.11 in)
(9.84 to 12.2 in)
Cacatua alba is a large white bird with blunt-ended feathers. It has yellowish coloration on the underside of its wings and tail. It is often referred to as the "umbrella cockatoo" because of its broad, backward-bending crest. The crest is fan-shaped when erect. The beak and legs are dark grey. Sexual dimorphism occurs in the eye coloration of C. alba. Both sexes have a pale blue eye-ring, but males have a dark brown iris while females have a reddish iris. Females usually have a smaller head and beak than males.
Cacatua alba weighs 500 to 630 g and is 46 cm long, on average. Its wingspan is 25 to 31 cm. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; Juniper and Parr, 1998)
Some key physical features:
endothermic ; bilateral symmetry .
Sexual dimorphism: male larger, sexes colored or patterned differently, ornamentation .
Reproduction
White Cockatoos breed once yearly.
Breeding occurs when vegetation growth is at its peak, usually between December and March.
Courtship behavior in C. alba is very impressive. It begins with the male showing off his body by ruffling his feathers, spreading his tail feathers, extending his wings, and erecting his crest. He then bounces about. The female avoids him at first, but eventually permits him to come near her. They then scratch each other around the head and tail. This serves to strengthen the bond between the two birds. After some time, the male mounts the female and they mate through the joining of the cloaca. Adults that have previously mated successfully have a much shorter courtship ritual, and the female often approaches the male.
Mates form a close bond with one another and are monogamous, with pair-bonds lasting throughout their lives. They can slip into a deep depression if removed from their partner. In the absence of a mate, white cockatoos in captivity will bond to a caretaker as if that person were its mate. (Lantermann, Lantermann, and Vriends, 2000)
Mating systems:
monogamous .
The breeding season of C. alba is dependent on the weather. They begin breeding when plant growth has reached its peak (usually between December and March). Pairs leave their group and find a nesting spot in a tree. They generally choose nesting holes in only the largest trees, and nest between 5 to 30 meters above ground. They usually lay two eggs, occasionally three. The male and the female share the responsibility of incubating the eggs until they hatch; incubation usually lasts 30 days. Typically, the parents raise only one of the chicks. If the first chick to hatch is healthy, they care for that one. If it is malformed or unhealthy, they raise the second chick. Chicks are born altricial. They learn to fly at three months of age but are still dependent on the parents for another two to three weeks. White cockatoos reach sexual maturity in six years. (BirdLife International, 2001; Lantermann, Lantermann, and Vriends, 2000)
Key reproductive features:
iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous .
The male and the female share the responsibility of incubating the eggs. Typically, the parents raise only one of the chicks. If the first chick to hatch is healthy, they care for that one. If it is malformed or unhealthy, they raise the second chick. Cacatua alba chicks are born altrical and are completely dependent upon their parents. Both parents are involved in caring for young, although females play a larger role. Chicks learn to fly at three months of age but are still dependent on the parents for another two to three weeks. Once a chick is able to care for itself, the group of three rejoins the rest of the flock. (Juniper and Parr, 1998; Lantermann, Lantermann, and Vriends, 2000)
Parental investment:
no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-hatching/birth (protecting: male, female); pre-weaning/fledging (provisioning: male, female, protecting: male, female); pre-independence (provisioning: male, female, protecting: male, female).
Lifespan/Longevity
Cacatua alba can live over 40 years in captivity and 30 years in the wild. People have made claims of cockatoos living up to 100 years, though these claims have not been documented. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; BirdLife International, 2001)
Behavior
Cacatua alba generally occurs singly, in pairs and small groups, or in flocks of up to fifteen birds. In the afternoon, they gather in groups of up to fifty birds. Although they are social, with the exception of mating pairs, they generally do not form close bonds with one another. As a result, there is no firmly defined order of dominance in the community. They are diurnal and tend to be sedentary, although some may be nomadic and wander in search of food.
White cockatoos are extremely bright and inquisitive birds. They have the ability to use tools, such as using a branch to scratch their backs. Birds in captivity require nearly constant mental stimulation. They are constantly moving, climbing, and doing gymnastics. In captivity, birds with too little mental stimulation often become neurotic, plucking their feathers to the point of baldness.
Captive white cockatoos are known to be very affectionate with their human companions, acting much more like a dog than a bird in this respect. (BirdLife International, 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998; Lantermann, Lantermann, and Vriends, 2000)
Home Range
We do not have information on home range for this species at this time.
Communication and Perception
Cacatua alba communicates with its mate through a variety of gestures and noises. They also scratch each other during the mating ritual. They have also been observed using pieces of wood to bang on trees and logs to alert other birds that the territory belongs to them. (Lantermann, Lantermann, and Vriends, 2000)
Food Habits
In the wild, C. alba mainly feeds on fruits of trees. They are often observed feeding on papaya, durian, langsat and rambutan. However, they have been seen eating crickets (order Orthoptera) and skinks (family Scincidae). They also feed on maize growing in fields, sometimes doing considerable damage. (BirdLife International, 2001)
Animal Foods:
reptiles; insects.
Plant Foods:
seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit.
Predation
We do not have information on predation for this species at this time.
Ecosystem Roles
Cacatua alba helps to disperse seeds and their nests are probably used as habitat for other animals in the non-breeding season. (BirdLife International, 2001)
Key ways these animals impact their ecosystem:
disperses seeds; creates habitat.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Cacatua alba can cause considerable damage to corn crops. (BirdLife International, 2001)
Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans:
crop pest.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
White cockatoos are commonly sold as pets throughout the world; they can cost $1,500 each. They are also popular among Indonesian tourists.
Ways that people benefit from these animals:
pet trade ; ecotourism .
Conservation Status
There are twenty-six bird species that are entirely restricted to the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area. Cacatua alba is one of eight threatened birds in this area. The greatest threat to wild white cockatoos is capture for the pet market. It is estimated that 17% of the world's population was removed annually between 1990 and 1993. The United States is by far the largest consumer of wild caught white cockatoos, with 10,143 imports recorded between 1990 and 1999. Fortunately, so far, the populations have been relatively resistant to such large pressures from the trade market. This is probably due to their considerable capacity to reproduce, their ability to adapt to changes in habitat, and their lack of predators and competitive species.
Cacatua alba is also threatened by deforestation and hunting.
Cacatua alba is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN and was placed on CITES Appendix II in 1981. The Indonesian government began issuing quotas on trapping in 1988 after becoming a part of CITES. However, the quotas were poorly enforced. In 1999, no quota was issued, making any capture illegal. The zero quota will remain in effect until a more reliable system for enforcing quotas is established. (BirdLife International, 2001)
For More Information
Find Cacatua alba information at
Contributors
Erin Lane (author), University of Michigan.
Phil Myers (editor), Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. Alaine Camfield (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
