Aptenodytes patagonicus
king penguin

Aptenodytes patagonicus (king penguins) colonies are mainly located on islands surrounding Antarctica. Islands include Crozet, Falkland, Heard, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Prince Edward, South Georgia and South Sandwich. Although no colonies have been found south of latitude 60 degrees S, some non-breeding members have taken residence in southern Chile and southern Argentina. Some lone wanderers have been found as far north as Brazil and South Africa and as far south as the Antarctic Coast.

On South Georgia Island over 30 colonies of A. patagonicus patagonicus reside. Colony sizes range from approximately 39,000 breeding pairs at both Salisbury Plains and St. Andrews Bay to 9,000 pairs located at Royal Bay. This subspecies is only found on South Georgia and the Falkland Islands. Another genetically unique subspecies, A. patagonicus halli, is only found on Crozet, Heard, Kerguelen, Macquarie and Prince Edwards islands. (McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001; Shirihai, 2008)

King penguins spend a lot of time in the ocean feeding, but their primary habitats are sparsely vegetated areas of islands in the southern oceans and sub-Antarctic. The islands south of the Polar Front are typically more glaciated and at higher altitudes. For example, Heard Island is 2745 meters above sea level. These islands are still out of reach of the Antarctic pack ice, but icy conditions are still prevalent. As in the case of South Georgia, the bays freeze over and the island is over half covered in ice during the winter months. In the locations not covered in ice, bryophytes are the primary vegetation. Islands like Macquarie (433 meters above sea level) have some flowering plants and ferns and the air temperature only varies a few degrees between the summer and winter seasons.

While king penguins prefer to live on islands south of the Polar Front, they prefer to fish in waters just north of it where surface air temperatures are around 4.5 degrees C. They have been known to dive to a maximum of 322 meters. (McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001)

King penguins are the second largest of all penguin species. Females are noted to be slightly smaller than males. However, no specific female measurements have been recorded. Their documented height ranges from 85 to 95 cm and weight is between 9.3 and 17.3 kg. Average adult weight has been found to be 11.8 kg.

Although they are easily confused with emperor penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri), king penguins are more colorful and have a longer, more slender bill. This bill has a stripe on the lower mandible that ranges in color from pinkish-red to orange-yellow and exhibits ultraviolet (UV) reflectance. The function of this beak spot is unclear, but it is thought to signal sexual maturity, health and/or social standing. The spot, without UV reflectance, is found in juveniles. Neither the beak spot nor UV reflectance are seen in chicks. This UV reflective beak spot does not differ between sexes.

Adult king penguins have a dark, nearly black head with orange to orange-yellow, spoon-shaped spots on either side of the head and an orange area that is most intense at the throat and fades down the upper breast into pale yellow then finally a white ventral side. The dorsal side of the body and flippers consist of gray and black feathers with a silvery sheen. The sides are separated from the ventral side by a narrow, black line. The front edge of the flipper also has a black line that extends to a black tip. King penguins are sexually monomorphic in plumage, but males are slightly larger.

Juvenile king penguins are similar to adults, but their coloration isn't as vivid. They do not reach full adult coloration until three years of age. Prior to the first molt, the chicks are simply dark brown.

There is no evidence of physical differences between the two subspecies. (Jouventin et al., 2005; McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001; Nolan et al., 2010; Putz and Bost, 1994; Shirihai, 2008)

Aptenodytes patagonicus has been generically documented as a long-lived bird. However, no numerical lifespan data has been published. Captive king penguins can live up to 26 years. (Flower, 1938)

King penguins are one of only two penguin species that do not build nests. Instead of building a nest, king penguins carry their eggs and young around on their feet during development. The lack of a nest also adds to the noise level of the colonies because they use their unique voice system to call to both their young and their mates.

King penguins are very social birds, and live in colonies with populations of up to 39,000 breeding pairs. The colonies are generally found on large, sparsely vegetated areas of the islands they inhabit because king penguins avoid climbing. They have been seen huddling together during blizzards to conserve heat. Large colonies have communal crèches, or groups, of chicks that stay together for protection while both parents are simultaneously foraging.

They have been known to travel up to 500 km from their breeding grounds to forage, and will bathe in the ocean before fishing.

The social hierarchies of king penguin colonies are not entirely understood. The penguins compete for positions in the center of the colonies, and these birds are more aggressive and more successful at reproduction than ones further out. It is thought to possibly relate to the ultraviolet beak spots or plumage. However, no definitive conclusions have been made. (Aubin and Jouventin, 1998; Dobson and Jouventin, 2003; Lockley, 1984; McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001; Shirihai, 2008; Viera et al., 2007; de Villiers and de Bruyn, 2004)

Home Range

Breeding pairs defend an area that is approximately 0.5 square meters against neighboring king penguins and predators.

The primary form of communication in king penguins is a two-voice system that is produced by the syrinx, a two-part organ located where the bronchi join. Each part produces sound independently. In penguins, the syrinx is only found in the genus Aptenodytes. The UV reflective beak spots may be used for signaling, but the true use is unknown.

Due to the noisy environment of king penguin colonies, adults repeatedly call out 3 to 7 syllables of varying volumes with two frequencies to locate chicks. The chicks are thought to identify the calls by the lower of the two frequencies because they transmit farther in the seeming chaos of many adults calling at once. The higher frequency has no documented use. This ability has been termed "cocktail-party effect." The parental call is thought to be learned during the first five weeks of life and is important because of the lack of nests and landmarks in the king penguins' habitats.

At this time communication research is mainly focused on the parent/offspring connection, but it is believed that the two-voice systems are also used to locate mates.

King penguins also incorporate movements and behaviors into courtship rituals. Males will produce trumpeting calls and stretch to their maximum height to attract mates. Once a female accepts, the two will stand facing each other and will engage in a series of stretching, bobbing, shaking, bowing, and calling. Like all birds, king penguins perceive their environments through visual, auditory, tactile and chemical stimuli. (Aubin and Jouventin, 1998; Aubin, Jouventin, and Hildebrand, 2000; Jouventin et al., 2005; Jouventin, Aubin, and Lengagne, 1999)

Aptenodytes patagonicus travels up to 500 km from its colony to the ocean to feed on cephalopods, small fish, and squid. They can remain underwater approximately 10 minutes and reach speeds of 12 km per hour while diving 25 to 322 m. Adults take turns returning at irregular intervals to supplement the young that stay in the breeding grounds. During their first winter the chicks predominantly survive from their stored fat. (Aubin and Jouventin, 1998; Lockley, 1984; McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001; Shirihai, 2008)

Antarctic fur seals, sub-Antarctic fur seals, leopard seals, and killer whales regularly prey on adult king penguins. Also, brown skuas and giant petrels prey on king penguin chicks. (Charbonnier, Delord, and Thiebot, 2009; Emslie, Karnovsky, and Trivelpiece, 1995)

King penguins occasionally serve as prey for Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazelle), subantarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus tropicalis), brown skuas (Catharacta lonnbergi) and giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus). None of these predators appear to control the king penguin population because they are not a primary food source, and the king penguin population is steadily growing. King penguins act as predators for cephalopods, small fish and squid found in their geographic range, but there is no documentation stating if the populations are controlled by this predation. (Aubin and Jouventin, 1998; Charbonnier, Delord, and Thiebot, 2009; Emslie, Karnovsky, and Trivelpiece, 1995; Lockley, 1984; McGonigal and Woodworth, 2001; Shirihai, 2008)

The hard tick, Ixodes uriae, is a parasite that infests king penguins. The mortality rate of adult king penguins due to hard ticks is unknown; however, there is documentation of death due to hyperinfestation of hard ticks. A bird louse, Austrogoniodes pauliani, is also a common parasite found on these penguins. (Gauthier-Clerc, Clerquin, and Handrich, 1998)

There are no known negative economic effects of king penguins on humans.

King penguins are part of the ecotourism business. During a study of nature-based tourism on the Falkland Islands, king penguins were the most popular of the penguins in the area. All of the tourists visited the king penguin colony, versus only half of the tourists visiting the second most popular penguins species. The tourists also stayed to view the king penguins for the longest time frame at a mean of 63 minutes versus only 19 minutes for the second most popular penguin species. (Otley, 2005)

The IUCN Red List states that king penguins have a status of Least Concern based on the following criteria: geographic range is greater than 20,000 square kilometers, population size is greater than 10,000 individuals, and the population size seems to be increasing.