By David Hyman
Geographic Range
Skylarks are native to North Africa, Asia, and Europe. British populations do not migrate, but populations from eastern Asia migrate to southeastern China and populations in the eastern Palearctic migrate to the northern Mediterranean. Skylarks have been introduced to Australia, Canada, Hawaii, and New Zealand. (Grzimek, 2003)
Biogeographic Regions:
nearctic 
(introduced ); palearctic (native ); australian (introduced ); oceanic islands (introduced ); pacific ocean (introduced ).
Habitat
(3280 ft)
Skylarks live in areas of open country. They are generally found living in extensive croplands, marshes, or meadows. They prefer to live among cereal grasses or low green herbage. Skylarks avoid wooded areas, even areas with isolated trees seem to be unsuitable. Skylarks feed, nest, and do most other activities on the ground. (Cramp, 1988; Jonsson, 1992)
These animals are found in the following types of habitat:
temperate ; terrestrial .
Terrestrial Biomes:
savanna or grassland .
Wetlands: marsh .
Other:
agricultural .
Physical Description
(0.6 to 1.94 oz; avg. 1.27 oz)
(7.09 to 7.48 in)
(1.18 to 1.42 in)
The sexes are alike in the plumage, but males are slightly larger. Skylarks usually range in size from 18-19 cm. They have a wing-span of 30-36 cm. Females of the species can weight 17-47 g, while males can weigh 27-55 g. Their bills are short but strong. Skylarks generally have streaked black-brown plumage, some have a yellow or grey overall tone. Their underside is a buff-white. Skylarks have brown-streaked crown feathers that can be raised to a small crest. (Cramp, 1988; Grzimek, 2003; Jonsson, 1992)
Some key physical features:
endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry .
Sexual dimorphism: male larger.
Reproduction
Skylarks breed once yearly.
Skylarks breed from April to July.
Male skylarks sing throughout the day, starting in the dawn hours. The song is mostly heard February through July, but a more faint song can be heard throughout the rest of the year. They usually begin their song after flying into the air 10-20 m. They then progress to flying 50-100 m up, then slowly spiral down with periods of hovering in the air. This can proceed for 10-15 minutes. The song itself usually consists of singing trills and cadenzas along with babbling and mimicry. It is used as a display to attract females. (Bruun, Delin, and Svensson, 1992; Cramp, 1988; Jonsson, 1992)
Skylarks pair early in the year between April and July. Courting may include high-speed chases in the air and their renowned singing behaviors. The birds are monogamous but only about half of mating pairs remain together after a year. (Bannerman, 1953; Cramp, 1988)
Mating systems:
monogamous ; cooperative breeder .
Skylark nests are often found near short vegetation and consist of a shallow depression in the ground. The depression is lined with stems and leaves, and the inner part is lined with finer materials like hair. The nest is built primarily by the female, although the male may help to form the depression in the ground. Skylarks lay 3-4, sometimes 5, eggs. (Bannerman, 1953; Cramp, 1988; Grzimek, 2003)
Key reproductive features:
iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous .
Females build the nest with little help from males. Once the young are hatched both parents care for them. Adults gather food for the young by making a pile of insects on the ground. When enough insects are collected, they are carried away to young and the soft parts are fed to them. Females incubate eggs for a period of 11-14 days. Both males and females protect the nest. Hatchlings leave the nest between 8-10 days after they hatch. Skylarks often have two, and sometimes three, broods each season. (Cramp, 1988; Grzimek, 2003)
Parental investment:
pre-fertilization (provisioning, protecting: female); pre-hatching/birth (provisioning: female, protecting: male, female); pre-weaning/fledging (provisioning: male, female, protecting: male, female); pre-independence (protecting: male, female).
Lifespan/Longevity
The annual mortality rate for adult skylarks was measured as 33.5% in England. One skylark was documented as living to 8 years 5 months old. (Cramp, 1988)
Behavior
Skylarks forage on the ground. They walk around, and can be found pecking at plant stalks and seed heads. Territorial aggression usually increases from February and peaks in April, but by July aggression is mostly absent. The aggression is displayed on the ground in the form of ruffled feathers, a raised crown, and threatening acts of aggression like fluttering off the ground with wings half-spread. Aggressive interactions over territory can also be aerial. This consists of a series of upward glides with intermitted fluttering towards an invader. (Cramp, 1988)
Skylarks often migrate in flocks and large flocks of skylarks can be found during severe weather. Flocks often do not consist of more than 10 individuals and if they do, they often break apart into smaller flocks. (Bruun, Delin, and Svensson, 1992; Cramp, 1988)
Home Range
There is no available information on home range size in skylarks.
Communication and Perception
Male skylarks are more vocal than females. Skylarks are known for the complex songs employed by males. Song flight usually begins with a silent ascent. When they reach an altitude of 50-100 m they begin to hover and circle over territory while continuing to sing. They then begin a spiral descent and cease to sing once 10-20 m are reached. The song itself consists of loud, trli or dji whistles in varying pitch patterns. Frequent repetition occurs as well as trills and tremolos with varying speed, pitch, length, and timbre. Skylarks may also sing on the ground with much the same singing pattern but often quieter, shorter, and consisting of more warbling and pauses. (Bannerman, 1953; Bruun, Delin, and Svensson, 1992; Cramp, 1988)
Skylarks also communicate through a dry chirrup, prriee and prreet call. (Bruun, Delin, and Svensson, 1992)
Food Habits
Skylarks are omnivores that eat seeds and insects. Skylarks are known to eat weed seeds and waste grain. They also eat invertebrates such as beetles, caterpillars, spiders, millipedes, earthworms, and slugs. They forage on the ground, searching for food visually. (Bruun, Delin, and Svensson, 1992; Cramp, 1988; Grzimek, 2003)
Primary Diet:
omnivore .
Animal Foods:
insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; mollusks; terrestrial worms.
Plant Foods:
seeds, grains, and nuts.
Predation
Small falcons (Falco) prey on adult skylarks, but these predators are not common. Nestlings and eggs are taken by ground-dwelling predators, such as foxes (Vulpes) and snakes (Serpentes). Humans used to prey upon these birds, capturing them in clap-nets and selling them. This greatly reduced their numbers, but the practice has since been prohibited in England. Skylarks are cryptically colored, helping to camouflage them as they search for prey on the ground. (Bannerman, 1953; Cramp, 1988)
Anti-predator adaptations::
cryptic .
Ecosystem Roles
Skylarks eat pests such as caterpillars and weed seeds that are detrimental to crops. (Bannerman, 1953)
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Skylarks are known to ravage spring cabbage plants and consume corn and other crops cultivated by humans. The advantage of skylarks consuming pests and weed seeds outweighs the disadvantage of their taste for certain crops. (Bannerman, 1953)
Ways that these animals might be a problem for humans:
crop pest.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Skylarks consume the seeds of weeds and detrimental plants as well as detrimental insects. This is advantageous to farmers. (Bannerman, 1953)
Ways that people benefit from these animals:
controls pest population.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: [link]:
Least Concern.
US Migratory Bird Act: [link]:
No special status.
US Federal List: [link]:
No special status.
CITES: [link]:
No special status.
The population size of skylarks introduced in North America is declining due to development in their habitats. Skylarks in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii are stable. In some areas agricultural practices, and loss of open grasslands and farmlands does threaten skylark populations. (Grzimek, 2003)
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.
David Hyman (author), Kalamazoo College. Ann Fraser (editor, instructor), Kalamazoo College.
